Go go gadget glycoprotein!: HSV-1 draws on its sizeable glycoprotein tool kit to customize its diverse entry routes.

Abstract

All viruses must enter cells to replicate [1]. Entry is thus the first hurdle a virus must overcome for a successful infection. Given the astonishing diversity of viruses that infect mammals alone—hundreds of thousands of different viruses according to some estimates [2]—it is unsurprising that their entry routes into cells are just as diverse. A major structural distinction that dictates the entry mode is the presence or absence of a lipid bilayer surrounding the viral nucleocapsid, which defines a virus as enveloped or nonenveloped, respectively. Nonenveloped viruses enter cells by endocytosis and subsequently penetrate the endosomal membrane by a variety of mechanisms including pore formation and endosomal fragmentation due to disruptive changes in membrane curvature [3], whereas all enveloped viruses must fuse their envelope with a host cell membrane: either the plasma membrane or the membrane of the endosomal vesicle following cellular uptake [4]. Regardless of the entry route, all viruses initially attach to the surface of the host cell by binding a cellular receptor. After attachment, enveloped viruses must employ fusogens—specialized viral surface glycoproteins that mediate the merger of the viral and host membranes by bringing them together as they undergo large, energetically favorable conformational changes. To do this, a spring-loaded fusogen must be triggered once the virus arrives at the right cell and/or the right intracellular compartment (such as an endosome, for example), either by binding a receptor (or a coreceptor) or by sensing the acidic pH of the endosome [4]. In many enveloped viruses, the receptor-binding and the fusogenic functions are mediated by different domains of a single glycoprotein. For example, the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) envelope protein, Env, the sole glycoprotein encoded by HIV, binds the cellular glycoprotein cluster of differentiation 4 (CD4) and a coreceptor, C-X-C chemokine receptor 4 (CXCR4) or C-C chemokine receptor 5 (CCR5), on the surface of CD4+ T cells and also serves as the fusogen [5]. The influenza virus glycoprotein hemagglutinin binds an attachment receptor, sialic acid, and undergoes low-pH-triggered fusogenic conformational changes upon endocytosis [6]. In some cases, for example, in paramyxoviruses, the receptor-binding and the fusogenic functions are mediated by separate glycoproteins, and the fusogen receives the triggering signal from the receptor-binding viral protein [7]. Most enveloped viruses thus contain multiple copies of only one or two glycoproteins, which mediate viral attachment and entry into target cells [5–15]. Yet, entry of herpesviruses—large enveloped viruses that infect a wide variety of cells—is more complex, as it requires multiple viral glycoproteins (typically, at least three) and diverse host receptors [16]. Moreover, the coordinated activity of these multiple viral glycoproteins permits entry into different cell types by different routes. Whereas in some herpesviruses, such as human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) or Epstein–Barr virus (EBV), the use of particular entry routes correlates with the involvement of specific viral glycoprotein complexes [17, 18], in other herpesviruses, notably, herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1), the picture is less clear [19]. Nonetheless, the entry mechanisms of all herpesviruses into a given cell, and particularly, the selection of the entry route, are complex and incompletely understood. The HSV-1 replication cycle in humans necessitates the infection of different cell types, chiefly, epithelial and neuronal cells. Although it is known that HSV-1 enters these cells by different mechanisms—endocytosis (epithelial cells) and fusion at the plasma membrane (neurons) [20, 21]—knowledge regarding HSV-1 glycoprotein involvement in the entry route–selection process is minimal. This raises the following question: How does HSV-1 select a particular route to enter different cell types? Although the answer remains elusive, this Pearl will summarize the current understanding of HSV-1 entry strategies and the players involved.