GFR slope as a surrogate endpoint for CKD progression in clinical trials.

Abstract

There is a paucity of therapies for chronic kidney disease (CKD), in part because of the slow nature of the disease which poses challenges in selection of endpoints in randomized controlled trials (RCT). There is increasing evidence for the use of glomerular filtration rate (GFR)-based endpoints either as percentage decline using time-to-event analyses, or as difference in slope between treatment arms. We reviewed the rationale for using surrogate endpoints and optimal methods for their evaluation prior to their use and evidence for GFR-based endpoints and particularly GFR slope as validated surrogate endpoints and considerations for their use in RCTs. In an individual patient meta-analysis of 47 studies (60 620 participants), treatment effects on the clinical endpoint were accurately predicted from treatment effects on 3-year total slope [median R = 0.97 (95% Bayesian confidence interval (BCI), 0.78-1.00] and on the chronic slope [R = 0.96 (95% BCI, 0.63-1.00)]. In a simulation study, GFR slope substantially reduced the required sample size and duration of follow-up compared to the clinical endpoint given high baseline GFR and absence of acute treatment effect. In the presence of acute effect, results were more complicated. GFR decline is accepted, and GFR slope is being considered, by regulatory authorities as a validated surrogate endpoint for CKD RCTs.