Gettering in silicon photovoltaics: A review

Abstract

A key efficiency-limiting factor in silicon-based photovoltaic (PV) devices is the quality of the silicon material itself. With evolving cell architectures that better address other efficiency-loss channels in the device, the final device efficiency becomes increasingly sensitive to the contaminants in the silicon wafer bulk. However, due to cost constraints, silicon materials for PV are inherently less pure and further contamination during device fabrication is commonly found, especially in mass production environments. Metallic impurities are ubiquitous and abundant, and they are strong efficiency-loss channels in the device if not removed. Gettering is the process of removing metallic impurities to a less harmful region of the device, and is therefore an essential aspect of the cell fabrication process. This article presents an up-to-date review of the gettering techniques and processes in silicon solar cells, providing a complete picture of the possible gettering sinks and routes in various cell architectures. The article starts by explaining the common nomenclatures in gettering and summarising recent updates to the solubility and diffusivity data of the common 3d transition metals in silicon. Then the three-step gettering process (release, diffusion, capture) is explained, and its implications for solar-grade cast-grown silicon (in terms of release) and various cell architectures (in terms of diffusion) are discussed. The main focus of the article is to summarise and review the various capture approaches in the context of silicon PV. These include phosphorus diffusion, boron diffusion, selective doping via ion implantation, state-of-the-art polycrystalline-silicon/oxide passivating contact structures, dielectric films (silicon nitride and aluminium oxide), aluminium alloying, surface damaged regions including black silicon, and internal gettering in cast-grown silicon by existing crystallographic defects. Their gettering effects, current understanding of the gettering mechanisms, modelling, improvement strategies, implementation in processing and potential impacts on cell performance are reviewed.