German Military Aid to Turkey in 1914: An Historical Re-Evaluation

Abstract

ON August 2, 1914 the Turkish grand I-'vizier signed a secret treaty of alliance with Germany. Under Article II, the Ottoman Empire undertook to side with Germany and Austria-Hungary if the latter powers became involved in a war with Russia. During the followinig days, however, it became apparent that the Porte was actually reluctant to commit Turkey to immediate intervention on the side of the Central Powers. Instead, the Ottoman Empire followed a policy of uneasy neutrality, which continued for almost three months before it finally was overcome by the combined efforts of Turkish interventionists, such as Enver Pasha, and of German officers and diplomats in Constantinople. The story behind Turkey's wavering policy during the months of August, September, and October 1914, has been the subject of numerous studies.1 With a wide variety of diplomatic documents and personal memoirs at their disposal, historians have been able to trace the principal stages of Entente and German policies in Constantinople and to assess their effect. Certain aspects of the story, however, are in need of further study, particularly the question of German aid to Turkey during the period AugustOctober 1914 when the statesmen of the Entente were still hopeful of keeping the Ottoman Empire out of the war. This German military aid program has usually been depicted as a steady flow of