Abstract
With mining of seafloor massive sulfides (SMS) coming closer to reality, it is vital that we have a good understanding of the geochemistry of these occurrences and the potential toxicity impact associated with mining them. In this study, SMS samples from seven hydrothermal fields from various tectonic settings were investigated by in-situ microanalysis (electron microprobe (EMPA) and laser ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS)) to highlight the distribution of potentially-toxic trace elements (Cu, Zn, Pb, Mn, Cd, As, Sb, Co, Ni, Bi, Ag and Hg) within the deposits, their minerals and textures. We demonstrate that a combination of mineralogy, trace element composition and texture characterisation of SMS from various geotectonic settings, when considered along with our current knowledge of oxidation rates and galvanic coupling, can be used to predict potential toxicity of deposit types and individual samples and highlight which may be of environmental concern. Although we cannot quantify toxicity, we observe that arc-related sulfide deposits have a high potential toxicity when compared with deposits from other tectonic settings based on their genetic association of a wide range of potentially toxic metals (As, Sb, Pb, Hg, Ag and Bi) that are incorporated into more reactive sulfosalts, galena and Fe-rich sphalerite. Thus, deposits such as these require special care when considered as mining targets. In contrast, the exclusive concern of ultra-mafic deposits is Cu, present in abundant, albeit less reactive chalcopyrite, but largely barren of other metals such as As, Pb, Sb, Cd and Hg. Whilst geological setting does dictate metal endowment, ultimately mineralogy is the largest control of trace element distribution and subsequent potential toxicity. Deposits containing abundant pyrrhotite (high-temperature deposits) and Fe-rich sphalerite (ubiquitous to all SMS deposits) as well as deposits with abundant colloform textures also pose a higher risk. This type of study can be combined with “bulk lethal toxicity” assessments and used throughout the stages of a mining project to help guide prospecting and legislation, focus exploitation and minimise environmental impact.
Highlights
Heightened interest in seafloor mining in international waters is emphasised by the International Seabed Authority (ISA) issuing 29 exploration contracts as of end-2018
Trace element analyses rely on electron microprobe analysis (EMPA) data due to lack of calibration standard, small grain size or intergrowths unsuitable for the laser ablation method
This study indicates how the characterisation of a deposits geological setting, mineralogy, trace element distribution, and texture can be used as a tool to help predict potential toxicity
Summary
Heightened interest in seafloor mining in international waters is emphasised by the International Seabed Authority (ISA) issuing 29 exploration contracts as of end-2018. The only published concept for SMS mining is provided by Nautilus Minerals Inc. which is expected to include both an “in situ” extraction phase, where the sulfide is cut on the seafloor, and a dewatering process, where the mineral slurry is carried to the surface, dewatered and the waste water (containing fine sulfide) is returned to 25–50 m above the seafloor [3]. During this process, fine sulfide particulates are created and may undergo geochemical changes including partial dissolution and oxidation. Bioleaching does have the potential to be a concern if mining occurs over months of operation as well as once any fine sulfide material has settled after initial extraction and dewatering [4]
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