Abstract
Apples are a nutritious food source with significant amounts of polyphenols that contribute to human health and wellbeing, primarily as dietary antioxidants. Although numerous pre- and post-harvest factors can affect the composition of polyphenols in apples, genetics is presumed to play a major role because polyphenol concentration varies dramatically among apple cultivars. Here we investigated the genetic architecture of apple polyphenols by combining high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) data with ~100,000 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) from two diverse apple populations. We found that polyphenols can vary in concentration by up to two orders of magnitude across cultivars, and that this dramatic variation was often predictable using genetic markers and frequently controlled by a small number of large effect genetic loci. Using GWAS, we identified candidate genes for the production of quercitrin, epicatechin, catechin, chlorogenic acid, 4-O-caffeoylquinic acid and procyanidins B1, B2, and C1. Our observation that a relatively simple genetic architecture underlies the dramatic variation of key polyphenols in apples suggests that breeders may be able to improve the nutritional value of apples through marker-assisted breeding or gene editing.
Highlights
Apples are one of the most produced and consumed fruits in the world with worldwide production reported at 90 million tonnes in 20161
high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) analyses The concentrations of six major polyphenolic groups (total phenolics, total hydroxycinnamic acids (HCA), total flavonols, total fluorescence, total anthocyanins, and total phloretin-like compounds) and 14 individual phenolic compounds in two different years are presented in Tables S1 and S2
The concentrations of polyphenols observed in the present study were in line with previous values measured across
Summary
Apples are one of the most produced and consumed fruits in the world with worldwide production reported at 90 million tonnes in 20161. Recognized as a nutritious food source, apples contain significant amounts of polyphenols and other bioactive compounds that contribute to human health and wellbeing. Many polyphenols (e.g., epicatechin, catechin, phloridzin, chlorogenic acid, and proanthocyanins) are strong antioxidants associated with reduced incidence of disease, including cardiovascular disease, metabolic syndrome, and certain cancers[2]. In the US, 22% of the polyphenols in the human diet originate from apples, which makes apples a primary dietary source of these antioxidant compounds[3]. Several epidemiological studies have reported that the consumption of apples can reduce the risk of chronic diseases, including cardiovascular diseases, asthma, various cancers, and type II diabetes[2,4,5,6]. Apples represent a key source of polyphenols in the human diet that may contribute significantly to disease prevention and overall health
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