Abstract
BackgroundAs habitat degradation and fragmentation continue to impact wildlife populations around the world, it is critical to understand the behavioral flexibility of species in these environments. In Uganda, the mostly unprotected forest fragment landscape between the Budongo and Bugoma Forests is a potential corridor for chimpanzees, yet little is known about the status of chimpanzee populations in these fragments.ResultsFrom 2011 through 2013, we noninvasively collected 865 chimpanzee fecal samples across 633 km2 and successfully genotyped 662 (77%) at up to 14 microsatellite loci. These genotypes corresponded to 182 chimpanzees, with a mean of 3.5 captures per individual. We obtained population size estimates of 256 (95% confidence interval 246–321) and 319 (288–357) chimpanzees using capture-with-replacement and spatially explicit capture–recapture models, respectively. The spatial clustering of associated genotypes suggests the presence of at least nine communities containing a minimum of 8–33 individuals each. Putative community distributions defined by the locations of associated genotypes correspond well with the distribution of 14 Y-chromosome haplotypes.ConclusionsThese census figures are more than three times greater than a previous estimate based on an extrapolation from small-scale nest count surveys that tend to underestimate population size. The distribution of genotype clusters and Y-chromosome haplotypes together indicate the presence of numerous male philopatric chimpanzee communities throughout the corridor habitat. Our findings demonstrate that, despite extensive habitat loss and fragmentation, chimpanzees remain widely distributed and exhibit distinct community home ranges. Our results further imply that elusive and rare species may adapt to degraded habitats more successfully than previously believed. Their long-term persistence is unlikely, however, if protection is not afforded to them and habitat loss continues unabated.Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12898-015-0052-x) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
Highlights
As habitat degradation and fragmentation continue to impact wildlife populations around the world, it is critical to understand the behavioral flexibility of species in these environments
Genetic sampling and discriminating individual chimpanzees We collected a total of 865 fecal samples over 633 km2 during the study period (Figure 3)
Based on our allele frequencies, we calculated that comparison at a minimum of nine loci was necessary to obtain a PIDsib < 0.001 and confidently determine that identical genotypes originated from the same individual rather than two different individuals, including for example full siblings
Summary
As habitat degradation and fragmentation continue to impact wildlife populations around the world, it is critical to understand the behavioral flexibility of species in these environments. Results: From 2011 through 2013, we noninvasively collected 865 chimpanzee fecal samples across 633 km and successfully genotyped 662 (77%) at up to 14 microsatellite loci. These genotypes corresponded to 182 chimpanzees, with a mean of 3.5 captures per individual. Large-bodied, wide-ranging mammals such as great apes are among the taxa most affected by growing habitat fragmentation These species often live in unprotected areas, which are vulnerable to forest loss and fragmentation [12, 13]. In East Africa, deforestation has led to increasing habitat fragmentation and poses a primary threat to the survival of eastern chimpanzees, Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii [14]. Similar patterns have been reported for chimpanzees in West Africa [12, 18]
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