Abstract
Phenotypic variation in the introduced range of an invasive species can be modified by genetic variation, environmental conditions and their interaction, as well as stochastic events like genetic drift. Recent studies found that epigenetic modifications may also contribute to phenotypic variation being independent of genetic changes. Despite gaining profound ecological insights from empirical studies, understanding the relative contributions of these molecular mechanisms behind phenotypic variation has received little attention for invasive plant species in particular. This review therefore aimed at summarizing and synthesizing information on the genetic and epigenetic basis of phenotypic variation of alien invasive plants in the introduced range and their evolutionary consequences. Transgenerational inheritance of epigenetic modifications was highlighted focusing on its influence on microevolution of the invasive plant species. We presented a comprehensive account of epigenetic regulation of phenotypic variation and its role in plant invasion in the presence of reduced standing genetic variation, inbreeding depression and associated genomic events which have often been observed during introduction and range expansion of an invasive alien species. Finally, taking clues from the studies conducted so far, we proposed a unified framework of future experimental approaches to understand ecological and evolutionary aspects of phenotypic variation. This holistic approach, being aligned to the invasion process in particular (introduction-establishment-spread), was intended to understand the molecular mechanisms of phenotypic variation of an invasive species in its introduced range and to disentangle the effects of standing genetic variation and epigenetic regulation of phenotypic variation.
Highlights
With the increasing number of reports on negative impacts of invasive species on regional biota (Bellard et al 2017; Early et al 2016; Iacarella et al 2015), biological invasion has become a severe problem globally and for obvious reasons, is in the spotlight of recent research trends
This study found interactive effect of demethylation with the environment and genotype, thereby suggesting that epigenetic variation can be influenced by both genetic structure and local environment
Statistical analysis to identify epigenetic variation that is not explained by genetic variation
Summary
With the increasing number of reports on negative impacts of invasive species on regional biota (Bellard et al 2017; Early et al 2016; Iacarella et al 2015), biological invasion has become a severe problem globally and for obvious reasons, is in the spotlight of recent research trends. Experimental studies on local adaptation and phenotypic plasticity are often conducted separately (but see Liao et al 2016), thereby leaving a gap in comprehensive understanding of relative contribution of genetic differentiation and epigenetically regulated phenotypic variation on invasion success. A classic example of epigenetic modification during intraspecific hybridization and its role in invasion success has been found in a series of studies involving the genus Spartina (Aïnouche et al 2009; Parisod et al 2009; Salmon et al 2005) In these experiments, methylation repatterning was observed in two hybrid species (Spartina x townsendii and Spartina x neyrautii), these hybrids were genetically uniform with their ancestors (American introduced Spartina alterniflora and European native Spartina maritima) (Salmon et al 2005). Name of the Species status Species Experimental Plant species reproduction design material
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