Abstract
Genetic factors are often overlooked in conservation planning, despite their importance in small isolated populations. We used mitochondrial and microsatellite markers to investigate population genetics of the adder (Vipera berus) in southern Britain, where numbers are declining. We found no evidence for loss of heterozygosity in any of the populations studied. Genetic diversity was comparable across sites, in line with published levels for mainland Europe. However, further analysis revealed a striking level of relatedness. Genetic networks constructed from inferred first degree relationships suggested a high proportion of individuals to be related at a level equivalent to that of half-siblings, with rare inferred full-sib dyads. These patterns of relatedness can be attributed to the high philopatry and low vagility of adders, which creates high local relatedness, in combination with the polyandrous breeding system in the adder, which may offset the risk of inbreeding in closed populations. We suggest that reliance on standard genetic indicators of inbreeding and diversity may underestimate demographic and genetic factors that make adder populations vulnerable to extirpation. We stress the importance of an integrated genetic and demographic approach in the conservation of adders, and other taxa of similar ecology.
Highlights
Population genetics remain overlooked in conservation planning [1], genetic factors may lead to population extinction even after other threats have been addressed [2]
We report the results of the UK Adder Genetic Project (UKAGP), a study into the genetic status of lowland adder populations in southern mainland Britain, where national distribution surveys have indicated a decline in comparison with historic records [30,31,32,33]
The UKAGP haplotypes broadly clustered with the mainland Europe Northern phylogenetic clade of V.berus, as described by Ursenbacher et al 2006 [37] (S1 Fig)
Summary
Population genetics remain overlooked in conservation planning [1], genetic factors may lead to population extinction even after other threats have been addressed [2]. Loss of genetic diversity and inbreeding depression represent the primary genetic threats [3], with the potential to contribute to an extinction vortex [4]. Tingley et al [5] have stressed the importance of addressing the optimal genetic management of small isolated reptile populations. The adder Vipera berus (Linnaeus, 1758) is a terrestrial snake with an extremely wide geographic range [6], which accounts for its IUCN Red List. Conservation Trust (https://www.arc-trust.org), and the Amphibian and Reptile Group UK (https:// www.arguk.org). The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript
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