Abstract
Using long-term maternal pedigree data, microsatellite analysis, and behavioral tests, we examined whether personality differences in wild Japanese macaques (Macaca fuscata) are associated with additive genetic effects, maternal influences, or belonging to a particular social group. Behaviors elicited by novel-object tests were defined by a component related to caution around novel-objects (Ob-PC1) and behaviors elicited by novel food-tests were defined by correlated components related to consummatory responses (Fo-PC1) and caution around novel foods (Fo-PC2). The repeatability of Ob-PC1 was modest and not significant; the repeatabilities of Fo-PC1 and Fo-PC2 were moderate and significant. Linear mixed effects models found that sex, age, sex × age, provisioning, trial number, date, time of day, season, and distance to the closest monkey were not related to personality. Linear mixed effects models of females older than 2 years found that high rank was associated with greater caution around novel objects. Linear models were used to determine whether sex, age, group membership, maternal kinship, or relatedness had independent effects on the personality similarity of dyads. These analyses found that pairs of macaques that lived in the same group were less similar in their caution around novel objects, more closely related pairs of macaques were more similar in their tendency to eat novel food, and that pairs of macaques in the same group were more similar in how cautious they were around novel foods. Together, these findings suggest that personality in this population of wild monkeys was driven by rank, genetic effects, and group effects, the latter possibly including the need to exploit different niches in the environment.
Highlights
Exploration is a personality trait observed in many species that describes individual differences in the tendency to approach or avoid novel situations (Reale et al 2007)
Using long-term maternal pedigree data, microsatellite analysis, and behavioral tests, we examined whether personality differences in wild Japanese macaques (Macaca fuscata) are associated with additive genetic effects, maternal influences, or belonging to a particular social group
In wild Japanese macaques, we found that one component described behavioral responses towards a novel object and two components described behavioral responses towards a novel food
Summary
Exploration is a personality trait observed in many species that describes individual differences in the tendency to approach or avoid novel situations (Reale et al 2007). Two alternatives to additive genetic effects are parental genetic and parental environment effects An example of the former would be if some heritable behavioral or physiological phenotype on the part of the mother influenced the behavior of her offspring (Wolf and Wade 2009). An example of the latter would be if some environmentally influenced behavioral or physiological parental phenotype influences their offspring’s behavior Another possible way in which resemblance among relatives may come about is via social transmission whereby offspring learn the behavior from observing one or both parents (Danchin and Wagner 2010; Danchin et al 2011)
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