Abstract
Otitis media (OM) is an inflammatory disorder in the middle ear. It is mainly caused by viruses or bacteria associated with the airways. Streptococcus pneumoniae, Haemophilus influenzae and Moraxella catarrhalis are the three main pathogens in infection-related OM, especially in younger children. In this review, we will focus upon the multifaceted gene regulation mechanisms that are well-orchestrated in S. pneumoniae, H. influenzae, and M. catarrhalis during the course of infection in the middle ear either in experimental OM or in clinical settings. The sophisticated findings from the past 10 years on how the othopathogens govern their virulence phenotypes for survival and host adaptation via phase variation- and quorum sensing-dependent gene regulation, will be systematically discussed. Comprehensive understanding of gene expression regulation mechanisms employed by pathogens during the onset of OM may provide new insights for the design of a new generation of antimicrobial agents in the fight against bacterial pathogens while combating the serious emergence of antimicrobial resistance.
Highlights
Otitis media (OM) covers a spectrum of middle ear (ME) inflammatory disorders that are caused by various irritating agents and pathogens
The ability to overcome environmental challenges during colonization inside the host is crucial for bacterial survival and persistence, establishment of infection
Streptococcus pneumoniae (Spn) senses the environmental stimuli and regulates its gene expression through short peptide pheromone-mediated signalling pathways and LuxS/ AI-2-dependent quorum sensing system. This enables Spn to regulate the switch between biofilm and planktonic phenotype for colonization or invasion, respectively; genetic competence, and fratricide activities, and expression of regulons involved in environmental adaptation and evasion of host immune system
Summary
Otitis media (OM) covers a spectrum of middle ear (ME) inflammatory disorders that are caused by various irritating agents and pathogens. In low to middle-income countries, OM is the main medical condition for antibiotics prescription and surgeries, and deafness in children, respectively. Gene Expression in Otitis Media Pathogens bacterial-related OM is still unavailable (Jalalvand and Riesbeck, 2018). Child immunization programs including conjugated pneumococcal vaccines have, decreased the incidence of Spn-related OM in most countries (Littorin et al, 2016; Littorin et al, 2021). We will mainly focus on the most studied gene regulation mechanisms of Spn, NTHi and Mcat that are associated with OM in the past decade
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