Abstract
Genetic factors can play a key role in the multiple level of analyses approach to understanding the development of child psychopathology. The present study examined gene-environment correlations and gene × environment interactions for polymorphisms of three target genes, the serotonin transporter gene, the D4 dopamine receptor gene, and the monoamine oxidase A gene in relation to symptoms of anxiety, depression, and oppositional behavior. Saliva samples were collected from 175 non-Hispanic White, 4-year-old children. Psychosocial risk factors included socioeconomic status, life stress, caretaker depression, parental support, hostility, and scaffolding skills. In comparison with the short forms (s/s, s/l) of the serotonin transporter linked polymorphic repeat, the long form (l/l) was associated with greater increases in symptoms of oppositional defiant disorder in interaction with family stress and with greater increases in symptoms of child depression and anxiety in interaction with caretaker depression, family conflict, and socioeconomic status. In boys, low-activity monoamine oxidase A gene was associated with increases in child anxiety and depression in interaction with caretaker depression, hostility, family conflict, and family stress. The results highlight the important of gene-environment interplay in the development of symptoms of child psychopathology in young children.
Highlights
monoamine oxidase A gene (MAOA) for boys was not associated with stress, conflict, caretaker depression, support/engagement, caretaker hostility, or scaffolding
Studying the relationships between these factors is still in a nascent state: Studies of main effects of various genes have been occurring with adults for many years and the number of such studies with children are increasing; studies of GÂE interactions in children are increasing, but still relatively uncommon; and concept papers discussing rGE in developmental psychopathology have emerged, but there are still very few studies that have measured rGE or attempted to show how it is related to GÂE in children
Studies of younger children allow for the examination of problems, such as the development of symptoms of oppositional defiant disorder (ODD), that are relatively common in that age group, as well as the early emergence of symptoms of disorders, such as anxiety and depression, which are likely to increase in severity over time
Summary
As described below, certain allelic variations might potentiate the impact of risk factors in various domains or have a protective function These genetic effects, operating in conjunction with contextual, family, parent, and child factors across domains and functional levels may have long-term negative (or positive) cascading effects that contribute to the development of psychopathology, as well as its stability over time. In some cases, such genetic effects may begin to impact the child’s functioning in early childhood, but it is plausible that the expression of these genetic effects, and the cascading processes they initiate, could occur in any developmental period. It is more common that (a) genes involved in the susceptibility to psychological problems are common allelic variations; (b) direct effects of these allelic variations are small; (c) because the increased risk will be incremental, effects are more likely to be detected with dimensional rather than categorical outcome measures; and (d) genetic effects may increase the probability of developing a disorder through their exposure to, or sensitivity to, risk factors in the environment (Rutter et al, 2006). Moffitt, Caspi, and Rutter (2005) note that conditions for which there are modest direct genetic effects but large individual differences in developing psychopathology are most appropriate for studying G Â E interactions
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