Gender-specific associations between perceived and objective neighbourhood crime and metabolic syndrome.

Katherine L Baldock,Neil T Coffee,Anne W Taylor,Catherine Paquet,Mark Daniel,Natasha J Howard,Abigail Fraser

doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0201336

Abstract

Much research has considered the relationship between neighbourhood crime and physical activity, but few studies have assessed clinical outcomes consequent to behaviour, such as cardiometabolic risk. Fewer still have simultaneously assessed perceived and objective measures of crime. Perceptions of crime and actual victimisation vary according to gender; thus, this study sought to assess: 1) correspondence between perceived and objective neighbourhood crime; and 2) gender-specific associations between perceived and reported crime and metabolic syndrome, representing cardiometabolic risk. The indirect effect of neighbourhood crime on metabolic syndrome via walking was additionally evaluated. An Australian population-based biomedical cohort study (2004–2007) collected biomedical, socio-demographic, and neighbourhood perceptions data from n = 1,172 urban-dwelling, adults. Area-level reported crime rates were standardised and linked to individual data based on participants' residential location. Correspondence between actual and perceived crime measures was assessed using Pearson correlation coefficients. Cross-sectional associations between crime and metabolic syndrome were analysed using generalised estimating equations regression models accounting for socio-demographic factors and area-level income. Correspondence between perceived and objective crime was small to medium among men and women (r = 0.17 to 0.33). Among men, metabolic syndrome was related to rates of violent (OR = 1.21, 95% CI 1.08–1.35) and total crime (OR = 1.17, 95% CI 1.04–1.32), after accounting for perceived crime. Among women, metabolic syndrome was related to perceived crime (OR = 1.35, 95% CI 1.14–1.60) after accounting for total reported crime. Among women, there were indirect effects of perceived crime and property crime on metabolic syndrome through walking. Results indicate that crime, an adverse social exposure, is linked to clinical health status. Crime rates, and perceptions of crime and safety, differentially impact upon cardiometabolic health according to gender. Social policy and public health strategies targeting crime reduction, as well as strategies to increase perceptions of safety, have potential to contribute to improved cardiometabolic outcomes.

Highlights

Neighbourhood crime and perceived safety are important indicators of the residential social environment
Perceived neighbourhood crime and safety has been found by some studies to relate to body mass index (BMI) [16, 17], obesity [18], metabolic syndrome [19], and an index indicating the sum of self-reported chronic health conditions [20]
Correlation coefficients between perceived crime and objective measures of total crime (r = 0.19; 95% CI = 0.11 to 0.27), violent crime (r = 0.22; 95% CI = 0.14 to 0.30) and property crime (r = 0.17; 95% CI = 0.08 to 0.25) were small to moderate

Summary

Introduction

Neighbourhood crime and perceived safety are important indicators of the residential social environment. Much research has considered the relationship between neighbourhood crime and physical activity, primarily walking behaviour [1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10]; fewer studies have considered outcomes beyond behaviour, such as cardiometabolic risk conditions like metabolic syndrome, a clustering of factors (including for instance obesity, high blood pressure and dyslipidaemia) predictive of cardiovascular and metabolic diseases [11,12,13]. Perceived neighbourhood crime and safety has been found by some studies to relate to body mass index (BMI) [16, 17], obesity [18], metabolic syndrome [19], and an index indicating the sum of self-reported chronic health conditions (such as respiratory problems, cancer, cardiovascular conditions, sleep problems, and depression and anxiety) [20]. Variations in the measures used to represent neighbourhood crime and safety, i.e., objective versus perceived measures, challenge any overall generalisation about the relationships between crime and health status

Methods

Results

Discussion

Conclusion