Gender Inequality in Urban China

Abstract

The results of the 1987 1% Sample Survey in China revealed that 88% of older women were illiterate but that only 15% of rural females aged 15-19 years were illiterate. In urban areas illiteracy was 29% and 67% among older men and women respectively and 2.3% and 6% among younger men and women. Female primary school enrollment increased from about 30% in the early 1950s to 40-45% in the late 1980s and thereafter. Female high school enrollment increased from 25% to 40%. By the 1980s female university enrollment was about 33%. Attainment of a primary education for females increased from 30% in 1955 to 94% by 1983. Secondary school attainment increased until about 1966-72. During 1973-76 attainment rates increased but after 1978 many junior high school students went on to technical schools. In the 1980s 9% of males and 5% of females continued with a university education compared to 33% before 1964. The determinants of enrollment by sex were examined in a logit analysis. The results showed that having a brother reduced the likelihood of enrollment but the impact was diminished by fathers occupation. The higher educational status of the father increased the chances of high school enrollment. Enrollment for boys increased from 56% for sons of secondary school graduates (fathers) to 79% for sons of university graduates (fathers). Gender differences were apparent. Only 35% of daughters compared to 42% of sons were likely to be enrolled in secondary schools when fathers had only a primary education. Higher enrollment rates for sons and daughters were found among those with fathers engaged in government administration or professional positions. The impact of fathers occupation was strongest on female enrollment in secondary school. The chances of females being in the labor force were affected most by female educational attainment. A junior high graduate was more likely to be employed and a high school graduate was even more likely to be employed. Older women were less likely to be employed but more likely to be employed if they had higher educational attainment. 44% of women worked in industry transport and construction in low priority industries such as paper textiles printing and communications. The chances of being a female enterprise head increased with increasing female age. Education and age had different effects on occupational attainment for men as compared to women.