Abstract
This study characterized the effects of smoldering incenses and combustion conditions on gaseous pollutant yields. Incense comes in three types: non-smoke (A), reduced-smoke (B) and traditional-smoke incense (C and D). Each incense type was burned in a test chamber with various combustion conditions (airflow rate and relative humidity). An extractive Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) was used to measure gas pollutants from smoldering incense in real time. Concentrations of methane, ethylene, methanol, formaldehyde and ammonia were measured using the IR spectra of smoldering incense samples. The resulting order of total emission factors of the identified gas pollutants (sum of methane, ethylene, methanol, formaldehyde and ammonia) were non-smoke < reduced-smoke < traditional smoke incenses. Total gas-pollutant emission rates and factors increased logarithmically as the airflow rate increased (2–28 L/min). Finally, the emission rates and factors of ethylene and methane decreased linearly as relative humidity increased (18–97%), while those for ammonia, methanol and formaldehyde increased. Results can be utilized to solve indoor air pollution problems caused by burning incense. Assuming that incense will continue to be burned when paying respect to ancestors, using incense made of low-volatility materials, with high carbon levels, low airflow rates and high environmental relative humidity can minimize gas-pollutant production.
Highlights
In Taiwan, incense is commonly burned to show respect to deities and ancestors
This study evaluates the effects of environmental conditions and various incense types on gas-pollutant emissions using Fourier transform infrared (FTIR)
This work demonstrated that smoldering incense produced toxic gas pollutants, such as formaldehyde, ammonia and methanol
Summary
In Taiwan, incense is commonly burned to show respect to deities and ancestors. Epidemiological investigations have demonstrated a relationship between burning incense and lung cancer (MacLennan et al, 1977), brain tumors (Preston-Martin et al, 1982) and childhood leukemia (Lowergard et al, 1987).Burning incense is an incomplete combustion. In Taiwan, incense is commonly burned to show respect to deities and ancestors. Epidemiological investigations have demonstrated a relationship between burning incense and lung cancer (MacLennan et al, 1977), brain tumors (Preston-Martin et al, 1982) and childhood leukemia (Lowergard et al, 1987). Smoldering incense produces gas and particle pollutants. The gas pollutants produced include carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxygen, formaldehyde and volatile organic compounds. Particles contain heavy metals, acid materials, elemental compounds (ECs) (Wang et al, 2006) and reactive oxygen species (ROSs) (Kao and Wang, 2002). Adverse health effects are likely associated with an extremely high number of particles, organic compounds, heavy metals, acid materials, ECs and ROSs
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