Abstract
As a result of high doses of paramagnetic gadolinium (Gd) chelates administered in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) exams, their unmetabolized excretion, and insufficient removal in wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs), large amounts of anthropogenic Gd (Gdanth) are released into surface water. The upward trend of gadolinium-based contrast agent (Gd-CA) administrations is expected to continue growing and consequently higher and higher anthropogenic Gd concentrations are annually recorded in water resources, which can pose a great threat to aquatic organisms and human beings. In addition, the feasibility of Gd retention in patients administered with Gd-CAs repeatedly, and even potentially fatal diseases, including nephrogenic systemic fibrosis (NSF), due to trace amounts of Gd have recently arisen severe health concerns. Thus, there is a need to investigate probable adverse health effects of currently marketed Gd-CAs meticulously and to modify the actual approach in using Gd contrast media in daily practice in order to minimize unknown possible health risks. Furthermore, the employment of enhanced wastewater treatment processes that are capable of removing the stable contrast agents, and the evaluation of the ecotoxicity of Gd chelates and human exposure to these emerging contaminants through dermal and ingestion pathways deserve more attention. On the other hand, point source releases of anthropogenic Gd into the aquatic environment presents the opportunity to assess surface water—groundwater interactions and trace the fate of wastewater plume as a proxy for the potential presence of other microcontaminants associated with treated wastewater in freshwater and marine systems.
Highlights
The upward trend of mining and using lanthanides (LAs: La to Lu) in the modern world has been accompanied by the release of increasing amounts of those chemicals in the environment, where their concentrations can exceed their natural values in orders of magnitude [1]
(1) Gd and Eu have been used for various phosphors in computer monitors and color television tubes; (2) regarding the unique magnetic characteristics of Gd, the element is used in magneto-optic recording technology to handle computer data; (3) gadolinium yttrium garnets are used in microwave ovens to produce the microwaves; (4) at room temperature, Gd displays a strong magnetocaloric effect and can be efficiently used for either magnetic refrigeration or testing other magnetic refrigeration devices; (5) permanent magnets containing Gd, Nd, Dy, and Tb are used in numerous electrical and electronic components, and generators for wind turbines; (6) Gd-containing crystals are used in high-power pulsed lasers; and (7) Gd oxide has been used in the production of optical fibers
Many publications and research projects were presented in this review
Summary
The upward trend of mining and using lanthanides (LAs: La to Lu) in the modern world has been accompanied by the release of increasing amounts of those chemicals in the environment, where their concentrations can exceed their natural values in orders of magnitude [1]. In terms of REE global production, China outnumbered other countries and supplied 98% of the demand [40] Regarding their unique properties and unparalleled performance, they are critical. Electronics (1) Gd and Eu have been used for various phosphors in computer monitors and color television tubes; (2) regarding the unique magnetic characteristics of Gd, the element is used in magneto-optic recording technology to handle computer data; (3) gadolinium yttrium garnets are used in microwave ovens to produce the microwaves; (4) at room temperature, Gd displays a strong magnetocaloric effect and can be efficiently used for either magnetic refrigeration or testing other magnetic refrigeration devices; (5) permanent magnets containing Gd, Nd, Dy, and Tb are used in numerous electrical and electronic components, and generators for wind turbines; (6) Gd-containing crystals are used in high-power pulsed lasers; and (7) Gd oxide has been used in the production of optical fibers. Power plant radiation leaks can be detected by Gd, being the most efficient detector
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