Abstract
Tooling in the die and mould industry is subjected to high-wear and high-temperature environments, which often leads to the premature failure of this high-added-value tooling. When severe damage occurs, an alternative to replacing the whole component consists of the repair by laser-directed energy deposition (L-DED). For that end, intermediate layers are commonly employed as buffer material, where introducing a functionally graded material (FGM) might be beneficial to avoid material incompatibilities and improve the overall performance of the tooling. In the present work, an FGM composed of gradient AISI 316L to AISI H13 has been manufactured, and its microstructure and hardness analysed. Firstly, cracking owing to the formation of brittle intermediate phases has been detected. Secondly, an increase of the hardness and a decrease of the corrosion resistance has been observed when transitioning from AISI 316L to AISI H13. Thirdly, despite the FGM composition evolving linearly, nonlinear material properties such as hardness and corrosion have been observed, which are conditioned by the microstructure formed during the L‑DED process and the nonlinear influence of the composition of steel on such properties. Consequently, nonlinear compositional gradients are recommended if linear mechanical properties are to be obtained in the case of steel FGMs.
Highlights
It was attributed to the forof the brittle sigma phase, which is common in stainless steels
According to Bobsubsequent heating and cooling cycles in laser-directed energy deposition (L-directed energy deposition (DED)) may promote the growth of the sigma bio et al, subsequent heating and cooling cycles in L-DED may promote the growth of the phase, leading to cracking of the component [32]
functionally graded material (FGM) samples constituted by AISI H13 hot-work tool steel and AISI 316L low carbon stainless steel have been produced by means of L-DED
Summary
Additive manufacturing (AM) technologies have emerged as an alternative to traditional manufacturing processes to produce complex, fully dense, and functional parts [1]. Additive processes were originally conceived as a tool to provide a quick representation of components, that is, rapid prototyping. Owing to the significant advances in AM and materials development, the paradigm of AM has shifted to the manufacturing of end products [2]. AM’s ability to manufacture intricate parts, unachievable through conventional manufacturing methods, has led to these technologies being adopted in aerospace, medical, energy, and automotive industries for the production of high-performance components, reaching a critical acceptance level in the industry [3]. Among the many technologies developed within the metal AM envelope, directed energy deposition (DED) excels.
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