Frost weathering of chalk

Abstract

The processes and factors that determine the heave and fracture of frost-susceptible bedrock exposed to temperature cycling above and below 0°C are little known but important to understanding of rock deformation, weathering and ground conditions. To investigate the early stages of heave, settlement and fracture of intact chalk, physical modelling experiments were performed on blocks of Saint Cyr Tuffeau and Totternhoe Clunch. Unidirectional (downward) freezing simulated seasonally frozen bedrock in non-permafrost regions, and bidirectional (upward from permafrost and downward from the surface) simulated an active layer above permafrost. Heave and settlement of the top of the blocks were monitored in relation to rock temperature and unfrozen water content. Heave and settlement showed complex behavior that varied with moisture content, freezing regime and time. Progressive heave of wet chalk during thaw periods (simulated summers) is attributed to microcracking in near-surface permafrost. Macrocracking was favoured near the rock top during unidirectional freezing and near the permafrost table during bidirectional freezing, producing extensive fracture networks. Four processes, operating singly or in combination, account for the heave and settlement behavior: (1) thermal expansion and contraction in dry chalk; (2) volumetric expansion of freezing water, causing bursts of heave; (3) ice segregation, causing sustained heave and rock fracture; and (4) freeze‒thaw cycling, causing initial consolidation and settling of wet chalk during unidirectional freezing. The experimental data and field observations of chalk weathering profiles elucidate the nature and origin of chalk brecciation. Type 1 brecciation (angular or subangular rock fragments separated by unfilled fractures with matched sides) is attributed primarily to ice segregation. Type 2 brecciation (subangular to rounded lumps of rock—lithorelicts—set in a fine-grained matrix of the same, but softer and remoulded material) probably resulted from frost weathering and limited ground movement, particularly beneath the sides and bottoms of wet (now dry) valleys.