Frost Resilience of Stabilized Earth Building Materials

Alan W Rempel,Alexandra R Rempel

doi:10.3390/geosciences9080328

Abstract

Earth-based building materials are increasingly valued in green design for their low embodied energy, humidity-buffering ability, and thermal stability. These materials perform well in warm dry climates, but greater understanding of long-term durability is needed for successful adoption in colder and/or wetter climates. The presence of stabilizers dramatically improves resistance to surface erosion from wind and rain, compared to unstabilized adobe and cob counterparts, and the influences of soil composition, fiber type, and diverse binders, on rain and wind surface erosion have been investigated in detail. Frost and freeze-thaw resistance, however, have been less well-studied, despite strong interest in stabilized earth materials in northern North America, Europe, and Asia. In particular, recent studies have relied on a widespread misunderstanding of the mechanism by which frost damage occurs in porous materials that will impede efforts to create valid models for material design and improvement. In addition, the influence of radiative thermal stresses on wall surfaces has been overlooked in favor of focus on ambient air temperatures. Here, we apply contemporary understanding of cracking by segregated ice growth to develop a macroscopic damage index that enables comparison between performance of different materials subject to different weather patterns. An examination of predicted damage patterns for two stabilized earth building materials and two conventional materials in twelve cities over two time periods reveals the dominant factors that govern frost vulnerability. We find that the frost resilience of earth building materials is comparable to that of the conventional materials we examined, and that assessments that neglect expected variations in water content by assuming full saturation are likely to yield misleading results. Over recent years, increased winter temperatures in several cities we examined predict reduced material vulnerability to frost damage, but we also find that accompanying increases in humidity levels have made some cities much more vulnerable.

Highlights

Earth and fiber mixtures stabilized with lime, slag, or cement create building materials that require considerably less production energy than concrete or kiln-fired bricks
With the stabilized rammed earth threshold cracking temperature set to Tc = −1 ◦ C, under water-saturated conditions these modeled time series predict substantial periods during which frost damage would be expected to accumulate
Our assessment of a physically-based frost damage index [67] in several of these climates suggests that frost resilience properties of stabilized rammed earth and compressed stabilized earth blocks compare favorably with those of conventional concrete and brick masonry constructions

Summary

Introduction

Earth and fiber mixtures stabilized with lime, slag, or cement create building materials that require considerably less production energy than concrete or kiln-fired bricks. In part, they require less cement (typically 6–8% by weight, compared to 10–15% for concrete [1,2,3]), which remains the principal contributor to embodied energy and greenhouse gas emissions associated with these materials [3]. The prospect of lowering a building’s life-cycle environmental impact gives earth materials great appeal in green design: as energy codes demand greater heating, cooling, and lighting efficiency, e.g., [17], the energy consumed and emissions associated with material production account for larger proportions of the total [18,19,20], especially if the materials are sufficiently durable to provide long building lifetimes [21]. Indoor environmental health is likewise an area of growing interest, e.g., [22]

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