From Desegregation to Resegregation: Public Schools in Norfolk, Virginia 1954-2002

Abstract

In 1954 Brown v. Board of Education decision, Supreme Court declared separate public schools for African American and white students unconstitutional. This essay examines history and evolution of school desegregation in Norfolk, Virginia from 1954 to 2002. by whites in Virginia to school desegregation began almost immediately following 1954 decision. Meanwhile, African Americans, with assistance of NAACP, fought tirelessly and quietly to end school segregation. Real school desegregation was finally achieved in Norfolk through implementation of an intra-district busing program in 1972. Yet, Norfolk would return to segregation, or experience resegregation, after ending of busing policy at elementary school level in 1986 and at middle school level in 2001. The Brown decision did not solve problem of segregation in Norfolk public schools and failed to bring about equal educational opportunities for African Americans in city. Indeed, progress towards that goal was marred by conflict. Moreover, since 1954 context for school desegregation has changed, as have policies and positions of those in charge of Norfolk public schools. What has remained constant, according to Charles Bryant, former president of Norfolk branch of NAACP, is demand for quality education for African American students. (1) Though segregation diminished and educational opportunities for African Americans improved in 1970s, in 1980s little significant progress was made, and situation began to deteriorate. MASSIVE RESISTANCE TO BROWN: 1954-1959 The court ruling in 1954 calling for desegregation of public schools was not received well in Virginia, state, but also a state of mind--a very special state of mind. (2) Virginians were adamant supporters of states' rights and fought hard to maintain racially discriminatory practices, including separate and unequal public schools. In 1954 Governor Thomas B. Stanley declared he would use every legal means at my command to continue segregated schools in (3) However, it was not governor who had most political influence in state of Virginia, but Senator Harry F. Byrd and his powerful Democratic machine. Byrd's belief that Brown decision was illegal and the most serious blow that has been struck against rights of states reflected sentiment of majority of white Virginians. (4) Massive resistance was necessary, it was thought, since Supreme Court was not only wrong, but was also interfering with rights of people of Virginia. Massive resistance in Virginia began in 1954 and continued to end of decade. In September 1954 Governor Stanley appointed legislative commission to examine possible courses of action in response to Supreme Court's decision. The group, known as Gray Commission, was chaired by Senator Garland Gray, Byrd loyalist. The Gray Plan, released in November 1955, sought to preserve segregation, and yet to avoid conflict with Court. (5) The plan called for tuition grants from public funds to aid white students attending private schools to avoid integration, new pupil assignment plan to minimize race mixing, and an amendment to compulsory attendance law so that child would be required to attend an integrated school. Equal educational opportunities for African American students were not addressed. In state-wide referendum held in January 1956, plan was approved by near two to one margin. White leaders interpreted result as clear sign of public's support for maintenance of segregation. President Dwight D. Eisenhower remained noticeably silent about situation in Virginia, following advice of his press secretary James C. Hagerty who suggested that, no comment be made which would be interpreted as either approving or disapproving vote of people of Virginia. …