From Conflict to Cooperation in the Study of International Security

Diplomats in Science Diplomacy: Promoting Scientific and Technological Collaboration in International Relations**

At a time when international political cooperation (for example, to combat climate change) rarely appears to be successful, this doctoral thesis examines the influence of the human factor on international relations. Many of the challenges currently facing the international community are global and their solution is in the interest of all or many countries. Thus, international and global cooperation is needed to solve them. However, this is precisely what often fails. In contrast, various scientific disciplines have found that people generally cooperate very well with each other. The classical scientific theory on international politics and international relations, however, does not or only to a very limited extent include the human factor in its considerations. In international cooperation, however, humans play a central role as an actor on behalf of states. For this reason, and with the aim of contributing to the inclusion of the human factor in the scientific considerations of international political theory, this paper examines the human factor and its influence on international cooperation. To reduce the complexity of the human factor, this work focuses on one aspect of the human factor, namely personal integrity. By means of quantitative analyses (multivariate regression analysis, principal component analysis, identification of interaction effects) and qualitative analyses (expert interviews, case studies), it concludes that personal integrity in particular and the human factor in general influence international cooperation. The paper further argues, and suggests reasons, that representatives of states in their work in international cooperation take on three different roles: 1. ambassadors as representatives of their home countries; 2. ambassadors as partners and colleagues in a group of different country representatives; 3. ambassadors as human beings with different backgrounds and personality traits. Thus, this work opens the debate on the human factor in international relations and argues that the inclusion of the findings of other academic disciplines can usefully complement and broaden the debate on international political cooperation in order to help solve the current problems of international cooperation.

The methods of effective support of international peace and security directly depend on the features of the global and regional security environment. The nature of current challenges and threats determines the format and directions of international security cooperation. Faced with the modern challenges and threats of the globalized world, no state is able to ensure its own security solely by its own efforts, without relying on the help of the international community and collective security structures. Each country independently determines the degree of its participation in certain international events in the field of international security. In this vein, various forms of international cooperation and cooperation in the field of security are formed in accordance with countries’ perceptions of common threats and their own national interests. In the conditions of the current level of globalization, international cooperation covers almost all spheres of social activity and requires the establishment of generally accepted and understandable “rules of the game” and certain regulation at the supranational level. These functions are assigned to international institutions and the system of international treaties. The transition to the information society, the processes of globalization, the development of the latest technologies and the new challenges of modernity have led to the emergence of new ways of waging war and have radically changed the international security system. The principles, resources and means of warfare have changed significantly. Modern challenges and threats to the global security system have led to a rethinking of the conceptual and practical foundations of international security cooperation. In order to maintain security and stability in the modern world, uniform rules, principles and standards of responsibility must be adopted. The UN acts as a universal and unique platform for consolidating positive trends in the development of the international security system.

The aim of this paper is to dissect the causal nexus between trust, institutions and cooperation in international relations (IR) and to highlight the theoretical and empirical potential of bringing trust from the periphery to the centre of our debates about international cooperation. My central argument is that the concept of trust allows us to explain particularly risky forms of international cooperation where the costs of being exploited outweigh the potential gains of cooperation, actors have an incentive to defect if others cooperate, and uncertainty about others' preferences and constraints cannot be fully reduced by international institutions. As most institutions in IR remain incomplete, scholars of international cooperation should hence pay more attention to trust-based forms of risk absorption. Moreover, the paper argues that the creation of trust is best conceptualised as a process of costly signalling. In order to test the causal link between trust and cooperation, the paper analyses Germany's consent to give up the Deutschmark and to create a common European currency in 1989. Germany's initial mistrust regarding France's trustworthiness in monetary affairs could be overcome by the exchange of costly signals. I show that the creation of trust was a necessary part of a causal mechanism bridging the analytical gap between Germany's general preferences for monetary cooperation and the actual creation of European Monetary Union under conditions of risk and uncertainty.

The terms ‘English School’ (ES) and ‘international security’ seldom appear in the same sentence. Yet the ES can and should constitute a general approach to International Security Studies (ISS) comparable to realism, liberalism, constructivism and several other approaches to International relations (IR). The article begins by sketching out how the ES’s idea of raison de système provides a general framing for ISS that counterpoints approaches focused on raison d’état. It then shows how the ES’s societal approach provides specific insights that could strengthen analysis of international security: by providing a normative framing for securitization; by showing the historical variability of key ISS concepts such as war, balance of power and human rights; by adding an inside/outside dimension to security relations based on differentiations within international society; and by complementing regional approaches to international security with its societal approach. The article aims to initiate a conversation between the ES and ISS by showing where the fruitful links are, and by introducing the relevant ES literature to ISS scholars.

Energy security is a global and comprehensive issue. As the establishment and development of international energy market, the previous thinking model of ensuring energy security by restricting on supply of energy has been changed. The research in this field has shifted to the establishment of mechanisms such as cooperation or pricing mechanism by which, policies of different countries can be coordinated; self-sufficiency of each country in energy supply will be improved; common energy saving measures may be adopted and the information of the international energy market can be shared by all and etc. This paper, by understanding of the new situation of international energy security, learning from international experiences and combining with China's own feature, aims at analyzing the new situation encountered by China in the field of energy security from the perspective of international cooperation, generalizing and concluding the status quo, its problems and challenges facing China so as to to present participating strategy of China in the international cooperation of energy security, such as promoting the establishment of energy security mechanism of China in the context of international cooperation, enhancing bilateral cooperation mechanism and international cooperation in low-carbon and clean energy.

International Security Studies (ISS) grew out of debates over how to protect the state against external and internal threats after the Second World War. Security became its watchword (Wolfers, 1952; Yergin, 1978), both distinguishing ISS from earlier thinking and the disciplines of War Studies and Military History, and, as it evolved, serving as the linking concept connecting an increasingly diverse set of research programmes. Looking back on more than sixty years of academic writing on international security, the first pertinent question for an intellectual history of ISS is to define what makes up the sub-field and where the boundary zones between it and adjacent academic disciplines are located.

The article deals with the origins, formation and development of Ukraine international military cooperation. A review of scientific developments on international military cooperation is conducting. Expands sociological basis of the subject and nature of international military cooperation in international relations. Special attention is paid to the modern international military cooperation with regard to twenty-five years of historical experience.

ASEAN is one of the most important partner in investment and trade with Korea. Especially, ASEAN is a new emerging market in tourism. Korea-ASEAN tourism exchange will be expanded and relationship will be strengthened. To expand effectiveness of international tourism cooperation between Korea and ASEAN countries, tourism education and training program should be emphasized and operated to improve capacity of human resource in ASEAN countries. The purpose this study was to determine ways for sustainable improvement of Korea-ASEAN tourism cooperation, especially focusing on the training and education programs. Detailed objectives were; 1) to understand international cooperation in tourism field; 2) to identify overall status, conditions, issues, and features relating to the tourism cooperation between Korea and ASEAN; 3) to determine demands of ASEAN countries on tourism training and education programs through inquiries; 4) to identify the status and issues of tourism cooperation which were made through various channels and best practice relating to the tourism training and education programs through in-depth interviews to the specialists in the fields of tourism, international relations, cooperations, and ASEAN. It was found that tourism related training and education cooperation programs which have been conducting were mostly sufficient to achieve their goals to alleviate recipient countries’ poverty. However, the scales of those programs were small and the frequencies were significantly lower. In the operating aspects, it was verified that those programs were not comply with the new direction of international cooperation which should reflect government’s international cooperation policies, respond to the participating countries’ demands and their needs, and administer program achievements or fruits. A survey with a total of 38 employees in tourism related businesses in six countries of ASEAN countries was conducted. They prefer field oriented and practice based training and education programs which can be applied in their home countries, and can strengthen their personal empowerment. They also emphasized that accommodation facilities and careful concerning on cultural differences are very important factors in training and education conditions. In-depth interviews were also conducted with 8 experts in the fields of international cooperation, tourism training and education, international relations, and ASEAN. They mentioned that it is very required to sustainable improve of tourism training and education programs. Those are establishing identification through program branding, managing instructors’ pool, developing and operating the programs based upon consumers’ needs, operating post-programs, maintaining expertise, and so on. This study is a kind of pilot study to deal with tourism training and education cooperation programs for ASEAN countries which expect to further expansion expecially in tourism fields. The results of this study could provide basic data and information for further researches on structuring international tourism cooperation and tourism training and education cooperation programs for ASEAN countries and other developing countries, and could contribute to develop and expand researches on international tourism cooperation models.

Bargains, Games, and Relative Gains: Positional Concerns and International Cooperation

[full article and abstract in Lithuanian; abstract in English]
 This article examines the concept of environmental security and assesses its role in international, regional and national security studies. The study is aimed at providing conceptual „mental map“ of this field, thereby giving analytical background and gui­dance for comprehensive environmental security studies, which are known for the diversity of conceptual approaches, methods and levels of analysis.The fundamental question of environmental security – how various environmen­tal factors (climate, resources, etc.) and processes can affect the security of states and societies. It examines the relationships between different environmental issues, their effects and various security problems. Environment is considered as integrated part of a security concept together with the dimensions of economic, social, energy or information security. In order to identify the main academic schools of the environmental security, this article uses four key questions, theoretically defining the core of environmental secu­rity concept: (i) what makes an impact (source of threat); (ii) to whom/what an impact is made („victim”); (iii) what kind of impact is made (threat); (iv) how an impact is made (mechanisms and “channels”). On the basis of these theoretical dimensions, five main academic schools of environmental security are identified and examined by focusing on their features and findings, methodology and critical assessment:1. Resource scarcity school examines the nexus between scarcity of renewable resources (e.g. freshwater) and various internal and international conflicts (their incidence, intensity and dynamics).2. Resource abundance school explores the relations between non-renewa­ble resources (e.g. diamonds, oil, etc.) and internal conflicts, especially civil wars.3. Climate change school focuses on nature (and human) induced environ­mental change and its implications for international security, socioeconomic development and social disruptions in various regions.4. Human security school focuses on environmental impacts on individual and “people-centered” security, which is closely related with sustainable develo­pment (food security, health and education, welfare, gender issues, etc.).5. Natural disasters school examines the socioeconomic impacts of various disasters (earthquakes, floods, etc.) with specific focus on the vulnerability and adaptive capacity of various social systems (states, communities, etc.).Analysis shows that environmental dimension becomes increasingly impor­tant element of international relations and security studies. Comprehensive security assessment, especially in developing countries, is not possible without taking into account the social and economic impacts made by resources, climate change and natural disasters.Research by 1 and 2 schools, despite various methodological problems, demons­trates the impact resources have to various internal conflicts and social disorder. Scar­city of renewable resources generates certain social effects (for example, decreased productivity of agriculture, migration, weakening of state institutions etc.), which, in turn, can fuel different types of conflicts (ethnic conflicts, coup d’état, poverty conflicts, etc.). Abundance of non-renewable resources can have various direct (for example, direct financial source for rebel groups), as well as indirect (affecting eco­nomy, political regime, separatism, etc.) impact to conflicts.Specific conditions in the developing countries play a significant role in terms of explaining the nexus between resources and security. Developing countries are often dependent on climate-sensitive agriculture and suffer from poverty. As a re­sult, various climate change effects (3 school) often amplify mechanisms, which lead to insecurity and violence, such as political instability, weak governance structures, poor economic performance, etc. This is especially relevant for those regions where several “conflict constellations” (water and food shortage, regular natural disasters, rapid demographic change, etc.) are overlapping. Environmental change also has a certain impact to international security in terms of possible increase in the number of weak and fragile states, risks for global economic development, intensification of migration, territorial disputes, etc.Generally, environmental security research (apart from the 1 and 2 schools) is based on a broad approach to security, which is not limited to military conflicts and include various elements of sustainable development and economic welfare. On the one hand, it is understandable, as interdisciplinary character of environmental securi­ty requires complex approach to security.On the other hand, research based on the concept of human security (4 school) often equates security with economic and social well-being, thus blurring the line between security and development studies. It also undermines the assessment of the impact environmental issues can have to traditional security problems (conflicts, regi­me change, political instability, etc.). Finally, securization of various social problems (AIDS, migration, poverty, gender inequality, etc.) might be used for political purpo­ses by legitimizing the use of military force or restricting human rights.Various natural disasters (5 school) have a substantial destructive power, which not only causes substantial damage (humanitarian crises, destroyed infrastructure, etc.), but also has complex socioeconomic and political effects, which affect politi­cal regimes, critical economic sectors, social stability, etc. From this perspective, a key role is played by physical and socioeconomic characteristics of vulnerability and adaptive capacity, which can absorb negative effects of natural disasters and mitigate the risk.

Cooperative Models in International Relations Michael D. Intriligator and Urs Luterbacher Cooperation problems in international relations research have been asso ciated with a variety of approaches. G

The ‘English school’ and ‘ International Security Studies ’ are names that are seldom found in the same sentence. Few if any people working within mainstream international security studies would think about the English school (ES) as a body of either theory or empirical work relevant to Security Studies. If they thought about it at all, they might well see the ES, with its concerns about order and legitimacy (Bull 1977; Clark 2005), as coming from the opposite, liberal, end of International Relations theory, than from the conflict/disorder realist end of the spectrum to which International Security Studies generally relates. The classic ES approach involves seeing International Relations as composed of three elements (Buzan 2004b: 6-10): international system (realism, Hobbes), international society (rationalism, Grotius) and world society (idealism or revolutionism, Kant). These elements are in constant interplay and the nature of international relations depends on the balance between them. In principle, this opens a bridge between the ES and International Security Studies via the realism element in ES theory. In practice, however, the great bulk of ES work has focused on international and world society, and on the rules, norms and institutions that underpin the social order of international society. Few within the ES have explicitly addressed the International Security Studies agenda, and the concept of security does not play much role in ES thinking. It is therefore reasonable to ask what a chapter on the English school is doing in a volume on International Security Studies. This chapter contains three answers to this question. The next section sets out the ES as a general theoretical framing for International Security Studies comparable with realism, liberalism and Marxism. The section after that reviews the existing ES literature on international security to show where the overlaps are, and the concluding section opens up some opportunities for how the relationship might be developed further.

Security studies is again reflecting on its origins and debating how best to study in/security. In this article, we interrogate the contemporary evolutionary narrative about (international) security studies. We unpack the myth’s components and argue that it restricts the empirical focus of (international) security studies, limits its analytical insights, and constrains the sorts of interlocutors with whom it engages. We then argue that these limitations can at least partially be remedied by examining the performance of identities and in/securities in everyday life. In order initially to establish the important similarities between (international) security studies and the everyday, we trace elements of the evolutionary myth in Buffy the Vampire Slayer and Angel – which both stand in for, and are, the everyday in our analysis. We then argue that the Buffyverse offers a complex understanding of (identities and) in/security as a terrain of everyday theorizing, negotiation and contestation – what we call the ‘entanglement’ of in/security discourses – that overcomes the shortcomings of (international) security studies and its myth, providing insights fruitful for the study of in/security. In conclusion, we briefly draw out the implications of our analysis for potential directions in (international) security studies scholarship and pedagogy.

Assessing the impact of geopolitics on international scientific cooperation - The case of US-China marine pollution research