From Blood Quantum to Liquid Gold: Black Creeks and Oklahoma’s First Resource Curse

Abstract

Abstract: This article investigates one of the most litigated and controversial court cases over Dawes enrollments in Oklahoma history from the perspective of Sally Atkins (1855–1924). Atkins, born into slavery in Missouri, married into an estelvste (African Creek) family in Indian Territory after the Civil War. Atkins migrated to Canada following statehood but was drawn back to Oklahoma by 1917. She believed her son, Tommy, to be the rightful allottee of one quarter section of the Cushing-Drumright Oilfield, the richest oilfield in the nation at the time. This claim drew Atkins into conflict with some of the most powerful oilmen in the state, who believed that another woman—a “full-blood” Muscogee—was Tommy’s mother. Who was the real mother of Tommy? State and federal officials, along with newspaper reporters, adjudicated the case based on their preconceived notions of race and “blood” in Indian Country, leading to confounding conclusions about racial categories, mineral wealth, and kinship. Many of these notions were then codified into state laws in Oklahoma. In this article, I untangle the shifting notions of bloodlines and property rights to show how the bureaucratic imperialism of the Dawes Commission fixed white supremacist notions of race for people recognized as “Black” in Indian Territory.