Abstract
Decentralization of on-site and in-site trace metal analysis has been a key topic over the last 30 years, owing to the increasing need for environmental protection as well as industrial and health-based field applications. In trace (and ultratrace) metal analysis, electrochemical stripping analysis with mercury (or bismuth) screen-printed film electrodes has shown a fast growth in popularity thanks to the good limits of detection, the ease of application in the field, and the low cost. Moreover, the availability of new wall-jet flow cells has opened the opportunity for their use in in situ industrial monitoring. The analytical figures of merit in stripping voltammetry with screen-printed electrodes (SPEs) under decentralized conditions and/or with sensor arrays are heavily affected by some analytical factors, primarily the presence of a pseudo-reference electrode, the efficiency of mass transport during the preconcentration step, and the need for external calibration. A careful model investigation of the analytical parameters for an efficient use of SPEs in decentralized conditions has been undertaken and discussed. Different instrumental approaches were investigated, comparing optimized batch conditions and flow cell operation under either continuous flow or stopped-flow sample injection. The stripping efficiency under wall-jet flow conditions was found to be high and comparable to that in batch conditions, leading to sub-ppb (μg/L) limit of detection (LOD) figures. Finally, external calibration in stripping voltammetry was studied as a viable alternative to conventional standard addition quantitation. Results showed, indeed, that external calibration was demonstrated to be reliable for quantitation of Pb and Cd in real water samples.
Highlights
IntroductionICP-MS, for trace metal analysis [1]
Anodic stripping voltammetry (ASV) has always been regarded as an extremely sensitive electroanalytical technique and is often the greatest competition for plasma spectroscopies, ICP-MS, for trace metal analysis [1]
External calibration in stripping voltammetry was studied as a viable alternative to conventional standard addition quantitation
Summary
ICP-MS, for trace metal analysis [1] These methods exploit the properties of certain electrodic materials to preconcentrate analytes—not just inorganic and electroactive (bio)organic molecules—on their surface and analyze them by stripping back to the bulk of solution. Mercury still plays a major role in electrochemistry thanks to its physicochemical properties and its good analytical figures in electroanalysis, robustness, reproducibility, and sensitivity for heavy metal determination [2,3,4]. The need to investigate trace analytes under in-the-field and/or decentralized applications with potentially complex sample matrixes prompted us to continue using mercury(II) as the best choice for such study, thanks to the profound knowledge of its chemistry and electrochemical behavior [2,3,4]. Bismuth(III) will be soon a viable alternative in this field, provided that a better understanding of its complex aqueous chemistry is reached [9]
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