Abstract
The present study examined the hypothesis that feedback inducing an external focus of attention enhances motor learning if it is provided frequently (i.e., 100%) rather than less frequently. Children (10- to 12-year-olds) practiced a soccer throw-in task and were provided feedback about movement form. The feedback statements, provided either after every (100%) or every third (33%) practice trial, were similar in content but induced either an internal focus (body-movement related) or external focus (movement-effect related). The results demonstrated that learning of the movement form was enhanced by external-focus feedback after every trial (100%) relative to external-focus feedback after every third trial (33%) or internal-focus feedback (100%, 33%), as demonstrated by immediate and delayed transfer tests without feedback. There was no difference between the two internal-focus feedback groups. These findings indicate that the attentional focus induced by feedback is an important factor in determining the effectiveness of different feedback frequencies. We argue that the informational properties of feedback cannot sufficiently account for these and related findings, and suggest that the attentional role of feedback be given greater consideration in future studies.
Highlights
Feedback is one of the major factors in the process of motor skill learning
Maximum throwing distance The maximum throwing distances reached by participants on the pre-test did not differ among the external focus 100% (6.9 m), external focus 33% (6.4 m), internal focus 100% (6.5 m), and internal focus 33% (6.4 m) groups
We tested the hypothesis that a high frequency of feedback (100%) would be more beneficial to learning than a reduced feedback frequency (33%) if the feedback statements induced an external rather than internal focus of attention
Summary
Feedback is one of the major factors in the process of motor skill learning (typically referred to as knowledge of results or knowledge of performance in the literature). After early disquisitions on the subject (e.g., Thorndike, 1914, 1927), and more systematic inquiries in the 1950s (e.g., Bilodeau and Bilodeau, 1958; Bilodeau et al, 1959), another resurgence in interest was seen in the mid-1980s, inspired by Salmoni et al.’s (1984) influential review of the literature and their theoretical ideas regarding the informational role of feedback. Another 30 years later, it may be opportune to take a fresh look at this important variable. We were interested in how the focus of attention induced by the feedback would interact with the frequency of its delivery
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