Freelance in Four Countries of the Western Balkans

Risk Shifts in the Gig Economy: The Normative Case for an Insurance Scheme against the Effects of Precarious Work*

The gig economy through short-term flexible employment contracts functions as today's market trend for labor management in present-day labor markets. The study investigates the impact of the gig economy on labor performance by evaluating employment effects and analyzing wages and making future projections regarding workplace models. Digital platforms including Uber and TaskRabbit and Upwork enabled workers to gain work arrangement control by letting them decide their schedule along with choosing work locations. Workers who participate in the gig economy experience dual advantages yet strong drawbacks occur due to their variable compensation and absence of work benefits including health insurance and paid time off and retirement benefits. Despite their initial attractive nature the several characteristics of gig work lead to resulting volatile future labor systems. The research adopts an elementary framework to study labor market evolution driven by the gig economy and its impact on splits between payment types and protection of workers. A combination of qualitative and quantitative research methods enables the research to establish a detailed understanding of the gig economy's operation. Research workers conducted surveys of independent contractors to collect information about their job rewards along with their income fluctuations and job satisfaction. The interview method produced supplementary insights about general worker impacts throughout different fields and corporate policy needs. This paper explained the outcomes of research and current developments in the contemporary gig economy through data obtained from academic literature as well as additional sources. Within the gig economy work model there are split occupational areas where experienced professionals earn flexible lucrative employment but inexperienced workers receive unstable minimum-wage positions. Workers at these establishments receive pay that changes dramatically because their earnings depend heavily on how long they work especially in ridehailing and delivery service roles. Flexible working schedules in the gig economy economy provide no stability to workers since this system blocks their access to critical benefits along with stable employment thereby threatening their future economic success. The power imbalance between employees and their employers develops because digital platforms took ownership of how much workers earn and what workplace rules must be followed. Policymakers need to develop innovative solutions which help solve the problems faced by personnel working in flexible employment. Workers who join flexible employment receive benefits from unconventional scheduling yet need governmental oversight to sustain reasonable pay and protect job stability and benefits. The government needs to establish protective measures for social benefits which support independent workers throughout this work arrangement but do not interfere with their continued labor freedom. Scientists need to identify long-term financial patterns affecting employee stability alongside researching how the emerging technology will transform the forthcoming market configurations.

The gig economy's explosive growth has created flexible, platform-based entrepreneurial opportunities that have drastically changed the global employment landscape. The role of gig work in promoting entrepreneurship is examined in this study, "The Gig Economy as a Sustainable Entrepreneurial Pathway – A Study on Zomato Ltd." It focuses on the advantages, difficulties, and long-term sustainability of gig work for workers in India's digital labor market. In order to obtain thorough insights, the study uses a mixed-method research design that combines quantitative and qualitative techniques. A structured questionnaire was used to gather primary data from 50 Zomato delivery partners in major Indian cities. Secondary data came from academic publications, business reports, and policy documents, such as India's Booming Gig and Platform Economy (2022) by NITI Aayog. The association between work flexibility, job satisfaction, and entrepreneurial intention was evaluated using statistical techniques like regression analysis and correlation. The results show that the main factors boosting gig workers' entrepreneurial mindset are flexibility, autonomy, and income potential. But issues like unstable income, no social security, and little opportunity for career advancement still exist. Gig work may be a route to self-employment if it is facilitated by strong institutional and organizational frameworks, according to a positive correlation between job satisfaction and entrepreneurial intent. To ensure sustainable gig entrepreneurship, the study suggests bolstering social protection, welfare, and skill development programs

The gig economy has rapidly emerged as a popular employment option, offering flexible work arrangements and opportunities for individuals seeking alternative employment. While its potential benefits are often highlighted, limited research exists on how the gig economy specifically impacts people with disabilities. This qualitative study aims to explore and understand the experiences of individuals with disabilities who engage in gig work. In-depth qualitative interviews were conducted with a diverse sample of participants living with one or more disabilities who are engaged in gig work. Thematic analysis was employed to identify common patterns, experiences, and challenges faced by participants. Preliminary findings indicate that the gig economy offers both opportunities and obstacles for people with disabilities. Opportunities include increased autonomy, flexible working hours, and the ability to leverage their unique skills and strengths. However, participants also reported encountering barriers such as income insecurity, discrimination, and a lack of benefits. Furthermore, the study sheds light on the nuanced experiences of participants based on factors such as disability type and the nature of work performed. The findings of this study contribute to a deeper understanding of the gig economy's impact on people with disabilities and inform policy and practice recommendations to enhance inclusivity, accessibility, and support mechanisms within this emerging work paradigm. Future research can build upon these findings to develop interventions and strategies that promote equitable opportunities and address the specific needs of individuals with disabilities in the gig economy.

This research analysis the status of unorganized workers in India’s digital platforms (gig economy), with a special focus on the opportunities and challenges they face. The gig economy has provided opportunities such as flexible working hours, income prospects, and skill development, particularly for low-skilled workers, whose average monthly income is approximately INR 29,375. However, job instability (62% of workers face income volatility), lack of social security (only 15% have access to benefits), and exploitation (55% of female workers affected) remain significant challenges. The study employs a mixed-method approach, including analysis of secondary sources. Statistical and thematic analyses reveal that gender, age, and regional disparities affect equitable access to gig economy benefits, with women and rural workers particularly impacted. The study proposes policy recommendations focusing on social security, platform regulation, and inclusive development to ensure the welfare of unorganized workers in the gig economy.

This article examines job satisfaction, job security, and career advancement experienced by individuals working as Uber drivers within the gig economy. This study employed a structured questionnaire to collect responses from 200 Uber drivers in Lagos. The collected data were analyzed with SPSS, concentrating on simple regression analysis. According to the studys findings, the gig economy provides job satisfaction, which can be attributed primarily to flexibility, autonomy, and diversified work opportunities. However, no correlation was found between job security and career advancement in the gig economy, as evidenced by inadequate compensation, unpredictable work hours, excessive responsibilities, insufficient rest, and significant exhaustion. In light of the myriad findings obtained in this investigation, our research ascertained that the utilization of digital platforms is imperative for the operational efficacy of the gig economy. KEYWORDS: Job satisfaction, Job security, Career advancement, Gig economy.

In today’s world, the rapid development of digital technologies and the gig economy has led to the emergence of new forms of employment that significantly change traditional labor relations. The platform economy, based on short­term contracts and freelance work, has become an important element of the labor market, offering new opportunities for workers, but at the same time presenting them with numerous challenges. The legal status of platform workers remains uncertain in many countries. Platforms often classify their workers as «independent contractors», «economically dependent independent workers» or «self-employed», which allows them to avoid obligations related to labor laws. This leads to legal gaps that jeopardize the social protection of workers on digital platforms. Different approaches to the legal status and social guarantees of workers in different countries create additional complexities in regulation. The issue of legal classification of digital platform workers remains unresolved, affecting their labor rights and social security. The authors consider the challenges that arise in connection with new forms of employment that displace traditional labor relations. The main attention is paid to the legal uncertainty of the status of gig workers, their social protection and the lack of a unified approach to the regulation of this sphere in different EU countries. The article analyzes legislative initiatives and case law in France, Germany, Austria and Spain, where the legal status of platform workers varies from employed to self-employed. Particular attention is paid to recent court decisions that affect the classification of platform workers and their social rights. The study reveals significant differences in the national legislation and judicial practice of different EU countries, which indicates the need to develop a unified European approach to the regulation of new forms of work. The authors emphasize the need to adapt national legislation to the new realities of the labor market, in light of the new EU Directive (Directive of the European Parliament and of the Council on improving working conditions in platform work), which aims to ensure the correct classification of employment status and the protection of the rights of gig workers.

As the world of work moves to increasingly precarious, temporary and insecure forms of labour, traditional forms of work regulation are becoming less relevant for the ‘gig economy’. Equality law has traditionally been framed as protecting ‘employees’ (and now ‘workers’) against acts of discrimination by ‘employers’. As these categories become increasingly remote from the lived experience of work, the relevance and potential of equality law to secure individual employment rights becomes increasingly limited. Drawing on comparative legal doctrinal analysis of the UK and Australia, this article considers options and new approaches for protecting workers from discrimination in new forms of employment, canvassing ideas such as the extension of equalitylaw to non-traditional workers, collectivized approaches to individual protection, and the use of positive duties to regulate the gig economy. This article questions the basic relevance and structuring of equality law for new forms of work. If equality law is to remain relevant and effective, serious changes are required to how it is conceived, framed and promoted. Merely extending existing ideas of ‘equality law’ to new forms of work will not respond to fundamental shifts in the labour market: there is a need to rethink and retheorize the role and purpose of equality law

Ashcheulova O.M., Los V.O., Lobunets T.V. THE CORRELATION BETWEEN TRANSFORMATIONAL PROCESSES AND EMPLOYMENT IN THE DIGITAL ECONOMY Purpose. The aim of the study is to conduct a comprehensive analysis of transformation processes in the digital economy and their impact on employment. and to identify areas of regulation that can ensure the adaptation of the labour market to new conditions. Methodology of research. The study is based on a combination of systemic and structural-functional approaches, which allows consider the digital economy as an integrated set of interrelated processes. Comparative analysis is used to compare transformation trends in different countries (the US, EU, China, India) and to substantiate conclusions about the polarisation of employment. Analysis of statistical and analytical sources (in particular McKinsey, WEF, ILO and national statistics) is used to empirically measure changes in the structure of employment, productivity and earnings. The content analysis method of regulatory documents (Platform Work Directive, Digital Services Act, OECD materials) was used to identify gaps in the institutional regulation of platform employment. The generalisation and synthesis of the data obtained provided the basis for causal conclusions about the interrelationship between technological change, military shock and institutional barriers. Findings. It has been substantiated that automation and the introduction of AI are reorienting labour market demand towards highly skilled professions, while reducing employment in mid-level professions. It has been established that the gig economy and remote employment are forming a new architecture of labour relations, which increases labour flexibility but reduces the level of social protection and income stability. Regional and age disparities in digital literacy in Ukraine based on the results of a national survey, which limits the access of part of the population to highly productive segments the labour market. A conclusion has been made about the lack of adequate regulatory and legal regulation of platform employment, which increases the vulnerability of workers times of economic and military shocks. It has been shown that the combination of technological transformations with demographic and military factors exacerbates the polarisation and requires targeted retraining and social protection policies. Originality. The study interrelationships were identified between key transformational processes (automation, AI, gig economy) and the quality of employment of the population, taking into account crisis factors and the institutional environment at the national level. Unlike existing approaches, the obtained results integrate technological changes with military and demographic challenges, allowing for a deeper assessment of the risks of labour market polarisation and social disparities. This approach creates the basis for the formation of targeted policies for retraining and adapting the social protection system, aimed at mitigating the polarising effects of digitalisation in the context of national and global challenges. Practical value. The results can form the basis for the formation of public policy aimed at combining the development of digital skills with the creation of effective mechanisms social protection for workers in new forms of employment. The obtained conclusions should be used in the development of institutional reforms that will ensure a balance between innovative growth and social justice in the labour market. The practical aspect of the study also lies in the possibility of integrating the Ukrainian labour market into the European digital space, taking into account the challenges of the war and post-war period. Key words: automation; gig economy; employment, institutional regulation, labour market; artificial intelligence; digitalisation.

temporary services from workers that will enable them to avail the services of workers as employees but without providing them thebenefits of employees. Gig work as it exists today in India is highly attractive on various dimensions such as flexible working hours, costeffectiveness,etc. but there exist several worries as well like social security, health insurance, etc. With high numbers of delighters andseveral pain points the workers are taking up gig work out of choice or necessity are different aspects of the study. It is, therefore, crucial tonot only identify which 'delighters' to double down on, but also identify which pain points can be addressed to drive participation andenhance the pull factor of the gig economy. The paper relies on secondary data such as research papers, articles, and books on the gigeconomy for analysis, inference, and conclusion. The paper aims to understand, and identify the situations and constraints of the gigworker and bring them to the fore for the solutions to channel the benefits of the gig economy to the workers with the help of the differentstakeholders.Keywords: Gig economy, Gig workers, Delighters, Worries, Social security, Stakeholders

Under the situation of industrial transformation and stable employment, gig economy has gradually become a new economic phenomenon and attracted widespread attention, but there are few studies on the formation mechanism of gig economy and its influence. Based on the Data of China Labor-force Dynamic Survey（CLDS）in 2014 and 2016 and the Peking University Digital Financial Inclusion Index, this paper empirically analyzes the relationship between city size, development of digital financial inclusion, and gig economy. The results show that: （1）City size is the physical basis of gig economy, that is, population agglomeration and supply-demand matching efficiency in big cities are more conducive to the emergence and development of gig economy.（2）The development of digital financial inclusion provides an important guarantee for gig economy, and the expansion of the availability and coverage of financial services promotes the further development of gig economy. In addition, the rise of gig economy will bring positive externalities to cities and become the new driving force of urban development. Similar to the sharing economy, urban agglomeration economy provides the growth environment and possibility for the emergence of gig economy, while digital financial inclusion provides technical support and diffusion foundation for the development of gig economy.Under the impact of COVID-19 epidemic, the employment of the real economy is generally affected, and gig economy, characterized by flexible employment forms, abundant employment channels and low employment threshold, has become an important channel to stabilize the employment situation and maintain steady economic growth. In this context, it is of certain theoretical and practical significance to study the generation and development of gig economy from the perspective of city size and digital financial inclusion. Therefore, in order to promote the healthy development of urban gig economy, this paper proposes the following policies: On the one hand, based on the positive impact of city size on gig economy, we should pay attention to the positive influence brought by urban population agglomeration when promoting the development of new economy, new industry and new format; on the other hand, considering that gig economy has a large space for development, the government should actively encourage this emerging economic form, grasp the opportunities brought by technological innovation such as the internet platform, and pay attention to the construction of financial infrastructure services in cities to provide necessary guarantees for the development of gig economy.

The gig economy, characterized by short-term contracts and freelance work, offers flexibility but often lacks the security and labor protections of traditional employees. The emergence of on-demand service applications like Uber, Swiggy, and Ola has made the gig economy more significant in the digital realm. These platforms provide rapid, straightforward, and adaptable services, making them useful for urban dwellers. However, the gig economy faces informality issues such as extended working hours, meager salaries, absence of formal employment contracts, inadequate social protection, restricted job security, lack of health insurance, nonexistence of paid leave, and insufficient access to utilities. Climate change is intensifying, leading to more frequent and severe extreme weather events, which disproportionately affect outdoor workers. The gig economy's reliance on digital platforms presents both opportunities and challenges for environmental sustainability. Digital platforms can facilitate efficient resource allocation, reduce commuting through remote work options, and optimize logistics, potentially leading to lower carbon emissions. However, the convenience-driven nature of on-demand services can increase vehicle emissions and urban congestion. This paper examines the intersection of the gig economy and climate change, highlighting the vulnerability of gig workers, particularly app-based workers, to climate-related risks. It examines the role of urban infrastructure, policy interventions, and technological solutions in mitigating these challenges. The study also considers the ethical responsibilities of platform companies in ensuring the safety and well-being of their workforce. It calls for integrating climate risks into occupational health guidelines and promoting sustainable practices within the gig economy.

공유경제는 사람들의 삶에 많은 편익을 가져다주었고, 그 경제 형태에서 근로 형태가 점점 다양화·유연화되면서 "플랫폼+개인"이라는 근로 형태가 보편화됐다. 노동 관계는 가장 기본적인 사회적 관계 중 하나이며, 이러한 새로운 형태의 노동자와 사용자 간의 관계, 즉 노동자와 플랫폼 간의 관계도 변화하여 사용자와 개인 간의 노동분쟁이 빈번히 발생하게 되었다. 둘 사이의 노동관계를 어떻게 인정할 것인지, 새로운 상황에서 노동자의 합법적인 권익을 어떻게 더 잘 보장할 것인가가 매우 중요한 문제가 되었다. 본 논문은 공유경제 플랫폼 노동자와 전통적인 노동자의 다른 법적 특징을 분석하고, 노동관계를 "유연성"과 "안전성"의 관점에서 수립한다. 노동권 보호 방안의 다양화를 이루어야 한다는 입장에서 서로 다른 인터넷 플랫폼의 새로운 비즈니스 모델에 대해 다양한 방식으로 설계된 새로운 유형의 인터넷 노동자의 법률관계 인정기준을 검토한다. 플랫폼 회사와 플랫폼 노동자의 권리와 의무를 합리적으로 배치하고, 적절한 노동관계 인정기준을 마련하는 것은 공유경제 발전에 도움이 될 것이며, 많은 일자리를 창출할 것이다. 또한 플랫폼 노동자에 대한 합법적인 권리 기반을 보장할 것이다. 이러한 기초 위에서 연구와 실천을 강화하고, 인터넷 플랫폼 노동 중 노동관계 법률의 발전과 완성을 추구해야 한다. The Gig Economy has brought a lot of convenience to people"s lives, and the form of employment in this economy has become more and more diversified and flexible, and the form of "platform + individual" has become common. Labor relationships are one of the most basic social relationships, and under this new form of employment, the relationship between laborers and employers (i.e., the relationship between laborers and platforms) has also changed, resulting in frequent labor disputes between employers and individuals, and how to identify the labor relationship between them and how to better protect the legitimate rights and interests of laborers under the new situation is very urgent. This paper analyzes the different legal characteristics of labor employment on Gig Economy platforms and traditional labor employment and tries to explore the design of new and diversified legal relationships of online employment based on the new business modes of different online platforms from the viewpoint of establishing the concept of "flexible and safe" in identifying labor relationships and the protection of labor rights in a hierarchical manner. The criteria for the identification of online employment relationships Reasonable allocation of the rights and obligations between platform companies and platform laborers and the establishment of suitable criteria for identifying labor relations will help the development of the Gig Economy and generate a large number of employment opportunities, which is a basic guarantee for the legality of platform laborers. On the basis of paying attention to it, we should strengthen research and practice to promote the development and improvement of labor relations law in online platform employment.

In recent years, there has been an increase in new forms of employment. Namely, thanks to the use of platforms in business and the emergence of the "gig economy", there are gradual changes in this domain. These include part-time, temporary, informal, and unpaid family work. This type of employment can be defined as any job, but only of short or uncertain duration.The experiences gained by the countries of the European Union, as well as the countries of the Western Balkans from the COVID-19 crisis, during which they used new technologies in work, should in the future make working systems even more adapted to the digital age.At last, whether working from home is the product of one's own choice or is the result of a pandemic or other environmental shock, the change in the way work is done is real and governments must understand the implications and take steps to position their economies accordingly.

The gig economy, characterized by flexible, short-term, and freelance work facilitated through digital platforms, has significantly transformed the employment landscape in India. This study provides a comprehensive overview of the dimensions, scope, driving factors, impact, and regulatory challenges of the gig economy in the Indian context. This research employs a descriptive methodology that relies on secondary data from government reports, academic journals, industry surveys, and media sources. The findings reveal substantial growth in India’s gig economy, with the number of gig workers increasing from 2.52 million in 2011-12 to 6.8 million in 2019-20, reflecting a compound annual growth rate of 16.78%. The key sectors driving this growth include mobility, delivery services, professional services, and microtasks. The gig economy offers workers flexibility, autonomy, and skill development opportunities, but also presents challenges such as job insecurity, lack of benefits, and economic vulnerability. For businesses, it provides cost-effective labour and operational flexibility while posing challenges in workforce management and retention. This study highlights significant regulatory gaps and policy challenges, emphasizing the need for comprehensive frameworks to protect worker rights, address gender inequalities, and ensure fair treatment. The absence of adequate social security measures and the precarious nature of gig work underscore the urgency of policy interventions. The future trajectory of India’s gig economy depends on balancing its growth potential with worker welfare, which requires collaborative efforts between policymakers, platforms, and stakeholders to develop inclusive policies. While the gig economy offers substantial opportunities for employment generation and economic growth in India, it requires careful regulation and policy formulation to ensure equitable and sustainable development.