Four tactics for improving behavior analytic services.

The aesthetics of intervention in defense of the esoteric

Programs based on applied behavior analysis (ABA) have become increasingly popular as interventions for childhood autism. A number of leading behavior analysts even have claimed that many children with autism can be cured through such programs and therefore strongly recommend ABA over alternative interventions. The extant research literature, however, does not support these claims. ABA programs for childhood autism are indeed promising, but exaggerated claims may undermine confidence in approach, and are misleading to families of autistic children and to other stakeholders. ********** Empiricism has always been one of key defining features of applied behavior analysis (ABA) (Cooper, Heron & Heward, 1987). Both theoretical and technological developments are closely tied to objective data (Zuriff, 1985). In keeping with high value placed on pragmatism, link between basic behavioral principles and technological developments that stem from these principles emphasized. Technological developments such as interventions for psychological disorders and behavioral problems are not relegated to an afterthought, but are central to entire enterprise. The recent movement toward empirically supported treatments (ESTs) in field of clinical psychology therefore represents nothing new to applied behavior analysts. Although debates are currently raging among clinical psychologists and other mental health professionals regarding relevance of outcome research to clinical practice, idea that interventions should be informed by data axiomatic to behavior analyst. Applied behavior analysts may join other empirically-minded professionals in quibbling over details (e.g., specific criteria that should be used to justify claims of empirical support for an intervention; cf. Herbert, 2000; Lohr, DeMaio, & McGlynn, in press), but idea that the data matter not in dispute. ABA AND CHILDHOOD AUTISM The conventional wisdom within field of ABA that one of most significant if not single most significant - empirically supported success story ABA-based early intervention for developmental disabilities, and childhood autism in particular. In fact, association of ABA with intervention programs for childhood autism has become so strong that Hayes (2001) recently warned that ABA is gradually becoming a subfield of developmental disabilities (p. 61). Indeed, Internet home page of Cambridge Center for Behavioral Studies (www.behavior.org)prominently features ABA programs for autism. The premier ABA journal, Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, frequently publishes articles on application of ABA for developmental disabilities. In a feature article on Autism, Newsweek magazine described ABA as the standard approach to intervention with autism (Cowley, July 31, 2000, p. 52). The ABC News program Nightline recently featured ABA for autism (March 9, 2001). The New York State Department of Health (1999) recently issued clinical practice guidelines for autism in which ABA recommended as a critical element of any intervention program for childhood autism. The astounding success of ABA early intervention programs for children with autism proclaimed not only in professional literature, but also in books and Internet sites targeted to parents and other stakeholders. These publications frequently announce that ABA programs can result in dramatic developmental gains for many autistic individuals. In fact, it claimed that many of these children can eventually function in normal education settings, and are indistinguishable from their normally developing peers. In other words, many can be cured of their disorder. Consider, for example, following passages gleaned from literature on ABA for autism: Several studies have now shown that one treatment approach--early, intensive instruction using methods of Applied Behavior Analysis--can result in dramatic improvements for children with autism: successful integration in regular schools for many, completely normal functioning for some (Green, 1996b, p. …

Behavior analysis is the underclass of psychology. It is under-funded, under-taught, and underappreciated. A lot is happening that is positive, but just beneath the surface, there are grave dangers lurking that could significantly worsen our already poor status. I prefer to believe that most of these dangers are things we can control by our own behavior (itself a rather behavioral idea), and I offer this list of dangers in that spirit. As someone once said: if you always do what you always did, you'll always get what you always got. Behavior analysts need to appreciate the following six dangers and adapt to them. LOSS OF MISSION Behavior analysis was initially strategically committed to the field of animal learning, but from the beginning its ultimate purpose was an understanding of complex human behavior: importance of a science of behavior derives largely from the possibility of an eventual extension to human affairs (Skinner, Behavior of Organisms, 1938, p. 441). In the early decades that was merely a promise, but the arrival of applied behavior analysis turned it into a program. Over the years, however, both basic and applied behavior analysis have narrowed and that original vision is being lost. Applied behavior analysis is gradually becoming a subfield of developmental disabilities, as a glance at a recent issue of JABA will confirm. The depth of the risk this creates is covered over by methodological rigor and applied impact within that narrow domain. Basic behavior analysis clings largely to narrow and precise questions of self-stimulatory interest in the animal laboratory, even while animal laboratories are being closed one by one, and areas of research within behavior analysis are being opened up that require human research. The depth of the problem is covered over by the productivity of a few major behavioral laboratories and the emergence of a handful of international labs, where protection from political winds have allowed the old seeds to grow a few new sprouts. In some ways, all of the other dangers I list can be traced back to the following core concern. Behavior analysis was always a carom shot. Instead of approaching human complexity directly, it tried to develop conceptual tools based on simple behaviors in simple contexts with small non-human animals, and then to apply these to an analysis of virtually every form of complex human behavior. It was a bold and even slightly preposterous idea, and yet it was one that worked far beyond what anyone had a right to expect. Now, however, we seem to be on the verge of forgetting what the mission was in the first place. Many basic behavior analysts have begun to believe that basic behavior analysis is a subfield of animal learning or (perhaps worse) behavioral biology. Where are the experimental analyses of emotion, friendship, sexuality, health, reasoning, humor, intelligence, and so on? Interpretation is not enough--we need an experimental analysis of such behaviors. Without the basic account, applied behavior analysts either ignore these areas or build common sense approaches to them. TOOL POLISHING No field so enjoys principles as does behavior analysis. Principles of behavior are ways of speaking about the prediction and influence of the historically and currently situated actions of organisms that are precise, broadly applicable, and coherent in terms of the larger fabric of science. Principles are the intellectual tools of analysis. They are not, however, ends in themselves. Sometimes behavior analysts are like the watchmakers who decided to make a set of extremely fine tools before actually making some complicated new watches. Forgetting what the tools were for, the talented watchmakers did not build the watches and display them in a glass cabinet, but instead put the tools themselves in that cabinet, taking them out only to polish them and to show how they work. Basic behavior analysts are especially prone to this error. …

Applied behavior analysis (ABA) is a science that involves applying interventions based on the principles of behavior analysis to change socially significant behavior. ABA is often erroneously viewed as an intervention, as opposed to a science. In this chapter, we discuss the science of ABA using the framework of the seven defining characteristics of the science, as described by Baer, Wolf, and Risley. We also provide a historical account of the science, focusing on its foundation in experimental analysis of behavior. As we discuss the defining features of ABA, we also identify some of the common misconceptions about ABA and attempt to clarify so as to dispel these misconceptions. Finally, given that therapies based on the principles of behavior analysis are the crux of evidence-based treatment for autism, we discuss the role of practicing behavior analysts in the treatment team. Because behavior analysis is a relatively young field, and there has recently been very large growth in the number of behavior analytic practitioners, known as Board Certified Behavior Analysts (BCBAs). We provide information on what a BCBA is, what their training consists of, and what skills they bring to the treatment team. It is our hope that this will assist the practitioner of parent–child interaction therapy (PCIT) in determining how behavior analysts can collaborate with them in the treatment process.

Following a workshop I conducted a few months ago, I was asked by an eager group of services agencies and parents, “We have funding, but do you know any good behavior analysts who can provide these services?” It seems to me that question is asked more often these days, which is a good thing—it's nice to be wanted. By many measures, behavior analysis has turned the corner; the demand for behavior analysts is broad, and the resistance to our science is fading. It was not so long ago that behavior analysts struggled to be heard while squelching rumors that behaviorism's wealth of promise had turned bearish. Today, we find ourselves in the public eye at a greater frequency and almost always in a highly favorable spotlight (e.g., see Department of Defense Report and Plan on Services to Military Dependent Children with Autism, 2007). Our services are in great demand, and (would you believe it?) we cannot produce behavior analysts quickly enough to meet the growing needs. An interesting dilemma: How do we maintain our standards for high-quality training of practitioners and resist the temptation to churn out practitioners, perhaps before they receive adequate supervision in the field? A related problem: The specifications and parameters of supervised experience have been delineated (Behavior Analysis Certification Board; BACB) to some extent, but beyond a task list, there is little to no uniformity in how to teach behavior analysis practitioners, especially those outside graduate training and internship programs. In Applying Behavior Analysis Across the Autism Spectrum: A Field Guide for Practitioners (Sulzer-Azaroff & Associates, 2008; hereafter, Field Guide), this dilemma has been addressed head on in a systematic and effective way. This clever and important book will open doors for shaping practitioners in their natural day-to-day settings and will go far to mediate the shortage problem that we currently face. From the lively narrative story that begins each chapter (a metaphor for the behavior analysis journey), to its inconspicuous programmed teaching design, Field Guide carefully escorts the new field practitioner (hereafter, practitioner) into the many challenges encountered in service delivery. Great care has been taken to preserve the fidelity of the science, principles, and practice of behavior analysis. In addition, Field Guide places a strong emphasis on best practices. Topics such as informed consent, literature review, data-based treatment decisions, supervision, practicing within ones competencies, and so on, establish the ethical foundation for the beginning practitioner. And if that is not enough to entice the practitioner to embark on the journey, Field Guide provides nearly every form and worksheet imaginable, thereby alleviating the burden of developing comprehensive formats and allowing the practitioner to get down to the business at hand—analyzing and changing behavior. There are numerous benefits from using Field Guide. Supervisors will immediately discover a cohesive and flexible program to provide guidance to practitioners across a variety of contexts. Practitioners will begin to conduct evidence-based behavior analysis treatment in a manner that defines best practice. Recipients of behavior analytic services will gain from behavior principles that have been applied in the most effective and conscientious way. In the long run, Field Guide can provide a foundation for integrating and establishing behavior analysis as the guide to effective decision-making at many levels. This, at least, was the outcome achieved at our program in which supervisors and practitioners shared in multiple successes including improved staff development techniques and competency-based training, improved academic and social skills, and more precise assessment of reinforcer preferences. The first portion of this review provides an overview of the Field Guide and a selection of the topics contained in each chapter. The second portion of this review is a brief summary of the results of using Field Guide in a practicum seminar conducted this past year at our program in Lafayette, Colorado.

The Openness is There.

It has been argued that the study of behavior is much like the study of other natural-science phenomena. Like physical principles and laws of physics, there are behavioral principles and related laws. Understanding behavioral principles allows an applied behavior analyst to better understand social and environmental influences on behavior and to solve problems related to aberrant behavior. Most of us are familiar with the law of gravity in physics: Under certain conditions (e.g., in a vacuum tube in a laboratory), any two items (e.g., a feather and a wrench) dropped simultaneously from a given height will both reach the ground at the same time. Similarly, behavior analysts understand that the principle of reinforcement is in effect when a stimulus follows a response and, as a result, that response is strengthened in terms of rate or some other dimension (e.g., duration). This principle has been demonstrated innumerable times in experimental preparations with humans and nonhuman animals in laboratories and natural settings. Less well understood, however, is how to observe and quantify the effects of reinforcement in behavior–environment interactions as they naturally unfold in nonexperimentally manipulated conditions. In the field of applied physics, scientists take the laws of gravity and then adapt them to account for variables that, at times, exert influence outside the highly controlled laboratory environment. For example, we do not live in a vacuum; therefore, objects fall around us at varying speeds. Thus, there is a formula in physics that takes into account the effects of air resistance. To better understand the influence of particular variables on behavior and to systematically and effectively address severe behavior problems, behavior analysts have isolated and manipulated environmental variables in experimental analyses of behavior. Further, functional analysis of behavior, described by Iwata, Dorsey, Slifer, Bauman, and Richman (1982/1994) to specify the operant reinforcers for aberrant behavior, has evolved for use in a variety of settings in treating a variety of target behaviors with a variety of populations. These analyses all involve the isolation and manipulation of variables for the purposes of controlling the independent variables and predicting their effects. However, if laws and principles of behavior are like physical principles and laws of physics, then it seems that we should be able to observe and quantify their effects in natural, nonexperimental conditions. The emerging practice of conducting quantitative descriptive analyses is an example of applied behavior analysts' attempts to account for and understand the effects of social and environmental influences on behavior as behavior–environment exchanges unfold naturally in day-to-day interactions, and how those interactions influence patterns of behavior (Martens, DiGennaro, Reed, Szczech, & Rosenthal, 2008). This special section on descriptive analysis consists of three different kinds of papers. The first paper by McComas et al. presents technical discussions of descriptive analysis methods with illustrative data sets. The next set of papers detail various approaches to the analysis and interpretation of descriptive data and the implications of each approach (Camp, Iwata, Hammond, & Bloom; Pence, Roscoe, Bourret, & Ahern; Samaha et al.). The final two papers seek to answer specific applied questions regarding environmental influences on behavior, using descriptive methods (Addison & Lerman; Hughes). It is our hope that these papers will (a) improve understanding of different approaches to the conduct of descriptive analyses and their implications, (b) increase capacity to conduct descriptive analyses, and (c) stimulate readers to consider new possibilities for systematically examining the influence of social and environmental influences on behavior.

Positive behavior support (PBS) developed in the 1980s and 1990s as an approach to enhance quality of life and minimize challenging behavior (Carr et al., 2002). Founded in 1999, Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions publishes both conceptual and empirical articles on PBS using a variety of methodologies (e.g., Baker-Ericzen, Stahmer, & Burns, 2007; Harvey, Baker, Horner, & Blackford, 2003; Vaughn, White, Johnston, & Dunlap, 2005), though single-subject designs are very common. One feature of JPBI that distinguishes it from other behaviorally oriented journals, including Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, is that the vast majority of published studies are conducted in natural settings rather than in clinical settings. This is not to suggest that research in laboratories or clinical settings is not important or valued; rather, it reflects an emphasis within PBS on external validity and contextual fit of interventions. As noted by Johnston et al. (2006), PBS has been associated with a great deal of federal funding and has been written into policy at the federal level. For example, the Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act of 2004 maintains provisions for behavioral interventions and supports for children with disabilities who display problem behavior. Some states have also adopted statutes prescribing PBS for persons with disabilities. Further, the Office of Special Education Programs (OSEP) of the US Department of Education has dedicated considerable funding to support PBS intervention, training, and research. Importantly, these developments did not come about as a result of campaigning by researchers within PBS, but rather because consumers (e.g., educators and parents) informed policy makers that PBS was having an important and durable impact on the lives of children. The PBS Controversy In recent years, a debate has evolved about positive behavior support and its relation to applied behavior analysis. Origins of the debate may be traced to the position that PBS is a new science, evolved from, yet different than, applied behavior analysis (ABA) (Carr et al., 2002). Although advocates of this position acknowledge the central influence of ABA in the heritage of PBS (Dunlap, 2006), they argue that the combined elements of PBS comprise a fundamentally new science to reduce challenging behavior. In response, some behavior analysts have countered that PBS is not different from ABA (Carr & Sidener, 2002). Proponents of this view posit that the procedures of PBS are largely, if not entirely, drawn from ABA and that attempts to conceptualize PBS as a new science have potentially harmful ramifications for the field of ABA. Furthering this view, other behavior analysts have described PBS as a direct threat to ABA (Johnston et al., 2006; Mulick & Butler, 2005). Accordingly, they imply that the successful dissemination of PBS as a new science will result in consumers' rejection of ABA. Moreover, because many PBS practitioners lack formal training in ABA, they argue, PBS interventions may result in deleterious effects for consumers. Diverging views have sparked debate among behavior analysts about PBS and its relationship to ABA. Although little direct evidence has been offered to support the claim that PBS is harmful to ABA, it is not unreasonable for behavior analysts to have concerns given these issues. The purpose of this paper is to allay these concerns by providing one perspective on the relationship between PBS and ABA. Unique contributions of PBS to the field of ABA are offered in conjunction with suggestions of how practitioners of PBS and ABA may work together for mutual benefit. Are PBS and ABA Different? PBS is an application of behavior analysis, which focuses on the core components of PBS identified in the literature (Anderson & Freeman, 2000; Anderson & Kincaid, 2005; Carr et al., 2002; Horner et al. …

The field of Applied Behavior Analysis has evolved to the point of providing services in many organizations and educational settings in the United States. ABA is considered in a growing number of schools, provider organizations, and by states, as the most effective intervention approach for children with autism. Advances in the research have led to numerous applications of behavior analysis methodologies, and the creation of the Behavior Analyst Certification Board in 2000. Yet, despite certification setting a standard for competence in the practice of Applied Behavior Analysis, there are no established standards in the U.S. for organizations or agencies that provide ABA as a primary treatment approach. This paper presents a brief statement of the need and purpose of such standards for accreditation in the implementation of ABA services. Keywords: Applied Behavior Analysis, behavior analysis accreditation, treatment, autism services. ********** It seems to me that the time has come in the development and progression of the field of Applied Behavior Analysis to devise a broad-based set of standards of practice for the field. Other professions including the American Psychological Association, American Psychiatric Association, and The Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, have all developed practice guidelines and standards for providing treatment and services for its practitioner members. In addition, there are a number of models for service and treatment delivery which are approved for third party reimbursement by Managed Care Organizations and Insurance Companies. Oversight bodies in this country are used by such payers to ensure standards of service delivery are met, including the Joint Commission for Accreditation of Hospital Organizations (JCAHO), CMS (Formerly HCFA), and NCQA. With the exception of devising ethical standards, the Association for Behavior Analysis International has not devised a set of practice standards for its practitioner members. There appears in fact to be some opposition to moving towards supporting clinical practice of Applied Behavior Analysis amongst the leaders of the association due to concerns about legal liability, and to retain the image of the organization as primarily supporting interest in research and academics in the field. One significant advance in the field of Applied Behavior Analysis in the past five years that sets the stage for the need to devise practice standards, and for a form of accreditation, is the creation of the Behavior Analyst Certification Board (BACB)[TM] in 1998, by Gerald Shook. This board is now recognized in at least 8 states in the U.S., and in four other countries. The board established standards for certification of individual practitioners based upon the Florida Behavior Analyst Certification process devised by the Florida Department of Children and Families in the 1980s. The board offers two levels of certification, as many behavior analyst practitioners now are aware of, including Board Certified Associate Behavior Analyst requiring a minimum of a Bachelor's degree, and Board Certified Behavior Analyst, requiring a minimum of a Master's degree, from an accredited university program or independent course as approved by the BACB. The BACB has established a curriculum that must be minimally adhered to for candidates to be eligible for certification at each level, along with supervision requirements, and a set of ethical standards for practitioners it certifies. The BACB has not established standards of practice, but the state of Florida under the auspices of Florida DCF, have established standards of practice for applied behavior analysis, which is written in state law for recipients of service by the Developmental Disabilities division. Indeed, one could visit any of a number of different states or specific programs, facilities, schools, or other agencies that provide ABA services in the United States, and find various practice standards and quality measures. …

In school settings, behavior analysts are often called in to consult on behavioral issues that surpass the knowledge, experience, and training of local school personnel. Severe behavior such as aggression to staff, SIB, and property destruction are common behavior referrals. The benefits of functional assessments, functional analyses, preference assessments, treatment analyses, and generalization analyses have been well documented in school and clinic-based research. However, to date, a unified framework to guide behavior analysts through these best practices in school settings has not been proposed. Further, although theoretical models for school consultation have been proposed (viz., Direct Behavioral Consultation), no empirical case examples of existing models have been published. The current paper describes the Behavior Analytic Consultation to Schools (BACS) model, its application to behavior problems, and provides 2 case examples of the BACS model to solve difficult behavior referrals in school settings. Keywords: Behavior Analytic Consultation to Schools (BACS), behavior, behavior, functional analysis ********** Children with developmental disabilities, cognitive impairments, mental retardation, and pervasive developmental disorders (e.g., autistic disorder) often demonstrate destructive behavior in school settings (Broussard & Northup, 1995; Foxx, 1982; Sasso & Reimers, 1988; Sasso, et al., 1992). Such behavior can have detrimental effects on those children, their peers, and on their classrooms as a whole (Ellis & Magee, 1999). Severe behavior such as aggression to staff, self-injury, and property destruction often lead to missed instructional time, physical injury to staff and peers, and to the use of invasive emergency procedures such as physical restraint (Burke, Hagan-Burke, & Sugai, 2003). The importance of reducing or eliminating destructive behavior in public school settings is obvious. In this paper, we make a distinction early on between severe and non-severe behavioral referrals. Severe behavior, as discussed here, refers to behavior that is physically dangerous to a person or to those to whom a person's behavior is directed. Examples include self-injurious behavior (SIB; head banging, head hitting, self biting, etc.), physical aggression to staff and peers (e.g., kicking punching, biting, etc.), and property destruction (e.g., breaking furniture, throwing chairs, etc.). Non-severe behavior common to classroom-based behavioral referrals refer to such behavior as noncompliance, disruption, getting out of one's seat, teasing, bullying, name calling, not completing work assignments, and inattention to tasks, etc. The distinction between the two types of behavioral referrals described above is made in order to contrast behavioral issues against other disruptive but behavioral issues such that issues related to staff working with children who demonstrate behavior problems can be properly put into context. The importance of making such a distinction will be discussed later in this paper. Much is known about the effective assessment and treatment of behavior in school settings. The applied behavior analysis literature is filled with many examples of functional assessment, treatment selection, and treatment evaluation of behavioral interventions in school settings (Cipani, 1999; Moore, Mueller, Dubard, Roberts, & Sterling-Turner, 2002; Mueller & Kafka, 2005; Mueller, Moore, & Sterling-Turner, 2005; Mueller, Wilczynski, Moore, Fusilier, & Trahant, 2001; Watson & Steege, 2003). Very little emphasis in the behavioral community, however, has been placed on effective models of providing such services on a consultative basis. It has been the school psychology literature that has addressed consultative issues including theoretical models to guide experts or to train consultees (e. …

The present author evaluated a correctional program that applies the principles of behavior analysis with in a Supermax correctional facility that housed 128 adult mate with severe behavior problems. An interdisciplinary team systematically assessed behaviors to be targeted. An individualized program was created for each inmate. Criteria for discharge from this unit were to have completed the assigned programs and to have not engaged in any violations of the rules of prohibited conduct. Data were recorded by correctional staff on problematic behaviors and appropriate behaviors of in this unit. Appropriate behavior was positively reinforced with increasing access to visitors, personal property and negatively reinforced by escaping from the unit upon completion of the assigned program. Results showed a significant decrease from years prior in the rate of misconduct reports and inmate grievances to the administration. ********** By the end of 2001, there were 2.1 million people incarcerated in America's prisons (Harrison and Beck 2002). In 2000, the National Center for Policy Analysis reported, estimated 630,000 were released from prison last year, with an estimated 160,000 of those being violent inmates (Du Pont 2000). These statistics beg several questions: is it surprising that the United States has surpassed South Africa as Western Civilization's most imprisoned people? What is being done, during the inmates' incarceration, to address antisocial behaviors that are being reinforced in prisons today? What are the maintaining variables that reinforce a person's development of pro-social behaviors? Does the society that imprisons these people recognize that criminal behavior does not simply stop at the entrance or the exit of a correctional facility? What is being done to change the behavior of these into people who will eventually become our neighbors? Over the last twenty years there has been much advancement in the technology of Applied Behavior Analysis. Have these advancements facilitated the building of constructive prison environments? The purpose of this paper is to describe a current program that applies Behavior Analysis in a maximum-security prison setting. History Although the national trend toward more stringent sentencing laws is decreasing, prisons are left to deal with a subset of the population that is considered unteachable. Likewise, was also the term used in the 1950's and 1960's to describe people with severe and profound retardation. was in the 1960's that Behavior Analysts began to research the field of Mental Retardation and Dual Diagnoses (MR/DD), and today, there are few behaviors that cannot be changed through the systematic manipulation of envirom-nental factors. Also, starting in the 60's and continuing into the early 80's, Behavior Analysts became interested in the application of the principles of behavior analysis in the correctional setting. In 1974, B.F. Skinner spoke out on the issue of how to build constructive prison enviromnents in a letter to the editor of the New York Times: It is possible for prisoners to discover positive reasons for behaving well rather than the negative reasons now inforce, to acquire some of the behavior which will give them a chance to lead more successful lives in the world to which they will return, to discover that the educational establishment has been wrong in branding them as unteachable and for the first time to enjoy some sense of achievement. But that can only be brought about through positive action. Most of the groundwork for building Behavior Analytic based constructive prison enviromnents have been outlined in the research emanating from this era in Behavior Analysis. A specific example of this research was undertaken in 1971 by John McKee, a Behavior Analyst, regarding the issue of contingency management in a correctional institution. …

Standards for Cultural Competence in Behavior Analysis Practice are based on the need interpreted by the Multicultural Alliance for Behavior Analysis, which believes that socially responsible Behavior Analysts, and those in study of Behavior Analysis, have the ethical responsibility to be culturally competent clinicians. material that follows is the first attempt by the profession to delineate standards for culturally competent behavior analysis practice. There are currently 12,118 certificants from 57 different counties registered with the Behavior Analysis Certification Board (BACB) (BACB, personal communication, March 7, 2013). In addition, the United States Census bureau projects there will be significant increases in racial and ethnic diversity over the next four decades, in part due to international migration (Guarneri & Ortman, 2009). Paralleling this growth, Behavior analysts will be called to serve an increasingly heterogeneous population. Ensuring that this diverse population obtains the level of care necessary, delivered in a culturally sensitive fashion, will be a challenge behavior analysts and health systems, and policy makers (Branch & Fraser, 2000) Association for Behavior Analysis International (ABAI) has a diversity policy, in which they support diversity. It states: The Association for Behavior Analysis International seeks to be an organization comprised of people of different ages, races, nationalities, ethnic groups, sexual orientations, genders, classes, religions, abilities, and educational levels. ABAI opposes unfair (Diversity Policy, 2012). Similarly, the BACB, has outlined Guidelines for responsible conduct which includes: 1.02 Competence (a) Behavior analysts provide services, teach, and conduct research only within the boundaries of their competence, based on their education, training, supervised experience, or appropriate professional experience. (b) Behavior analysts provide services, teach, or conduct research in new areas or involving new techniques only after first undertaking appropriate study, training, supervision, and/or consultation from persons who are competent in those areas or techniques. 1.05 Professional and Scientific Relationships (b) When behavior analysts provide assessment, evaluation, treatment, counseling, supervision, teaching, consultation, research, or other behavior analytic services to an individual, a group, or an organization, they use language that is fully understandable to the recipient of those services. They provide appropriate information prior to service delivery about the nature of such services and appropriate information later about results and conclusions. (c) Where differences of age, gender, race, ethnicity, national origin, religion, sexual orientation, disability, language, or socioeconomic status significantly affect behavior analysts' work concerning particular individuals or groups, behavior analysts obtain the training, experience, consultation, or supervision necessary to ensure the competence of their services, or they make appropriate referrals. (d) In their work-related activities, behavior analysts do not engage in discrimination against individuals or groups based on age, gender, race, ethnicity, national origin, religion, sexual orientation, disability, socioeconomic status, or any basis proscribed by law. (e) Behavior analysts do not knowingly engage in behavior that is harassing or demeaning to persons with whom they interact in their work based on factors such as those persons' age, gender, race, ethnicity, national origin, religion, sexual orientation, disability, language, or socioeconomic status, in accordance with law. Standards for Cultural Competence in Behavior Analysts aims to provide a framework for Behavior Analysts to work within a heterogeneous population (see appendix a) * Definition: Culture In Beyond Freedom and Dignity, Skinner offered a simple behaviorist definition of culture: social environment is what is called culture. …

There is a long-standing debate about the place for technical versus colloquial language in applied behavior analysis; however, this debate has yet to be considered within the context of a professional code of ethics for applied behavior analysts. In this article we discuss the limitations of technical language in articulating the applied behavior analyst's ethical commitments, illustrating this point by considering the use of the term punishment in the Professional and Ethical Compliance Code for Behavior Analysts (Behavior Analyst Certification Board, 2016). The ethical concerns regarding the use of punishment may be more accurately stated in terms of the need to avoid techniques that cause pain or discomfort rather than techniques that meet the technical definition of punishment. In summary, more consideration should be given to the use of subjective terminology in behavior analysts' ethical discussions.

School-age children, adolescents, and young adults with autism spectrum disorder encounter many different types of providers in their pursuit of treatment for anxiety, behavior problems, and social difficulties. These providers may all be familiar with different types of intervention practices. However, research has not yet investigated patterns in expert providers' familiarity with different practices nor how these patterns are related to the characteristics of providers (years in practice, academic discipline, setting) and the youth (age and intellectual disability) they typically support. A panel of 53 expert transdisciplinary providers rated their familiarity with 55 intervention practices (derived from research and expert nominations) via an online Delphi poll. Advanced statistical methods were used to identify types of intervention practices with which providers were familiar, which included two approaches (cognitive and behavioral) and two strategies (engagement and accessibility). Providers who practiced outside a school setting or treated clients without intellectual disability were more familiar with cognitive approaches. Clinical psychologists, behavior analysts, and school-based providers were more familiar with behavioral approaches. Providers practicing outside school settings were also more familiar with engagement strategies, and providers with more years in practice were more familiar with accessibility strategies. These results may help families and researchers to better anticipate how services may vary depending on the types of autism spectrum disorder providers seen and work to reduce disparities in care that may result.

Behavior analysts continually assess the needs of clients and the community at large. Some behavior analysts have educated themselves and become public policy advocates at the local, state, national, and international levels. Across the world, behavior analysts are meeting with legislators to educate them on behavior analytic solutions to societal problems, including but certainly not limited to why people need behavior analytic services. Incorporating a behavior analytic perspective into policies supports best practices in many areas and creates a more humane, positively reinforcing environment for all. Papers published in this special issue of Behavior Analysis in Practice on public policy advocacy demonstrate how such work has positively affected society across the globe. Such work has involved credentialing and regulation of behavior analysts, funding for ABA services, and increasing service capacity. Authors discuss their public policy advocacy efforts, share lessons learned, and discuss implications for future efforts. Many behavior analysts may be unaware of the importance of being involved in public policy and advocacy and how they can make a difference for the benefit of society. Behavior analysts are urged to learn from the work described and adapt and apply it in their community.