Forensic examination of rocks, sediments, soils and dusts using scanning electron microscopy and X-ray chemical microanalysis

Abstract

Abstract Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and energy-dispersive X-ray (EDX) microanalysis are powerful techniques for forensic and wider environmental analysis of a range of materials, including rocks, sediments, soils and dusts. Methods of analysis have evolved rapidly over the past 40 years and computer-controlled, variable pressure SEMs with integrated EDX now provide the opportunity for rapid, automated analysis of large numbers of samples and particulates within individual samples. However, interpretation of the data requires care and experience on the part of the operator, and samples should always be checked by visual inspection. Early SEM work on rocks and sediments mainly used the secondary electron (SE) mode to produce topographical contrast on rough surfaces, but more recent studies have utilized the capacity of backscattered electron (BSE) imaging to image both topographical and atomic number contrast. BSE microscopy, combined with X-ray mapping, provides a rapid means of locating unusual particles and grain coatings, and of mapping their distribution, which may be of diagnostic or discriminatory importance. In the past, much attention has been given to grain surface textural features (mainly of quartz) but many such studies have suffered from a high degree of subjectivity, poor reproducibility, lack of discriminatory power, and high cost both in terms of time and money. The application of digital imaging and statistical data-processing techniques can to some extent reduce these problems but, in general, chemical characterization of particles offers a more powerful approach. This paper provides an overview of these techniques, discusses their limitations and illustrates some of the forensic and wider environmental applications.