Footbinding and non-footbinding Han Chinese females in the Qing Dynasty (1644–1912 CE) Xifengbu cemetery: a skeletal and mortuary analysis

Abstract

Footbinding was an infamous custom of the Han Chinese people used to modify the size and shape of feet in women. Binding started at a very young age and gradually deformed the natural growth of the feet, which was not only a painful process but also a lifetime source of inconvenience and morbidity. In this study, we report a large number of skeletons with signs of footbinding bones excavated from the Qing Dynasty (1644–1912 CE) Xifengbu cemetery, Shanxi Province, Northern China. Ninety-three female individuals at Xifengbu were found, of which 74 had footbinding while 19 were free of the tradition. Their age at death ranged from 13 years old to around 60 years old. Interestingly, all of the individuals also came from two feudal families over hundreds of years. All footbinding was identified by type as Talipes Calcaneus. Compared to the non-footbinding group at Xifengbu, the overall size and robustness of the leg bones of the footbinding group were smaller, indicating a weaker leg musculoskeletal system that affected locomotion and physical activities, as well as an increased risk of falls and injuries. Mortuary analysis indicated that footbinding females had a higher economic status than non-footbinding females. However, all non-footbinding females were found from joint burials, indicating their wife or concubine status and thus the acceptance of the non-footbinding during the time of prevalent footbinding in Qing Dynasty rural area. The findings will not only enrich our knowledge of the footbinding practice in ancient China but also shed light on how this gender-biased custom might have compromised health and quality of life for women. Additionally, the findings will show how footbinding may have determined opportunities to different lifestyles in the socioeconomic stratigraphy of the pre-modern male-dominant society in China.