Abstract
This paper investigates the effect of food environments, characterized as food swamps, on adult obesity rates. Food swamps have been described as areas with a high-density of establishments selling high-calorie fast food and junk food, relative to healthier food options. This study examines multiple ways of categorizing food environments as food swamps and food deserts, including alternate versions of the Retail Food Environment Index. We merged food outlet, sociodemographic and obesity data from the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) Food Environment Atlas, the American Community Survey, and a commercial street reference dataset. We employed an instrumental variables (IV) strategy to correct for the endogeneity of food environments (i.e., that individuals self-select into neighborhoods and may consider food availability in their decision). Our results suggest that the presence of a food swamp is a stronger predictor of obesity rates than the absence of full-service grocery stores. We found, even after controlling for food desert effects, food swamps have a positive, statistically significant effect on adult obesity rates. All three food swamp measures indicated the same positive association, but reflected different magnitudes of the food swamp effect on rates of adult obesity (p values ranged from 0.00 to 0.16). Our adjustment for reverse causality, using an IV approach, revealed a stronger effect of food swamps than would have been obtained by naïve ordinary least squares (OLS) estimates. The food swamp effect was stronger in counties with greater income inequality (p < 0.05) and where residents are less mobile (p < 0.01). Based on these findings, local government policies such as zoning laws simultaneously restricting access to unhealthy food outlets and incentivizing healthy food retailers to locate in underserved neighborhoods warrant consideration as strategies to increase health equity.
Highlights
The nation is experiencing an obesity epidemic, with 35% of all adults classified as having obesity [1]
All the food swamp measures were significantly related to rates of adult obesity at the county level; the comparative analysis revealed variation in the magnitude of this effect across food swamp measures
We tested the traditional Retail Food Environment Index (RFEI) index and two expanded versions of the RFEI index and found that the traditional RFEI had the strongest relationship with rates of adult obesity out of the three measures, in both ordinary least squares (OLS) and instrumental variables (IV) regression analyses
Summary
The nation is experiencing an obesity epidemic, with 35% of all adults classified as having obesity [1]. Disparities exist and obesity rates are higher in low-income populations and racial and ethnic minority groups than in socially-advantaged populations [2]. There are inequalities in obesity rates by geographic region, which has serious implications for exacerbating health disparities [3,4]. The relationship between where people live and their risk of obesity has led to research on the relationship between one’s food environment and health. Food Deserts and Food Swamps “Food deserts”, defined as residential areas with limited access to affordable and nutritious food, [5] have been posited as one driver of the obesity epidemic [6].
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More From: International journal of environmental research and public health
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