Food Safety Research at Virginia State University

Food Science and TechnologyVolume 36, Issue 4 p. 42-45 SpotlightFree Access Networking to reduce microbial risk in foods First published: 01 December 2022 https://doi.org/10.1002/fsat.3604_11.xAboutSectionsPDF ToolsExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShare Give accessShare full text accessShare full-text accessPlease review our Terms and Conditions of Use and check box below to share full-text version of article.I have read and accept the Wiley Online Library Terms and Conditions of UseShareable LinkUse the link below to share a full-text version of this article with your friends and colleagues. Learn more.Copy URL Share a linkShare onFacebookTwitterLinkedInRedditWechat Matthew Gilmour and Maria Traka of the Quadram Institute introduce the new UK Food Safety Research Network, which is aiming to Improve the safety of UK foods by harnessing expertise across the food chain in collaborative research and training activities. The challenging ecology of foodborne microbes Preventing microbial pathogens from entering the food chain is challenging due to the multitude of environmental and agricultural niches in which they thrive. Pathogens like Salmonella and Listeria are expert at being carried in and adapting to farm and food production settings, leading to contamination of diverse meat and plant-based foods. The challenges to control these microbes are only becoming more complex as food production systems and consumer preferences evolve and global factors, such as climate change, impact the ecology of food systems. The UK is strongly committed to food safety, with food manufacturers focusing on ensuring foods are healthy and safe for their customers. There are many programmes in place that regulate how food is produced and monitor for hazards that might contaminate foods; some initiatives come from government and some from the food industry itself. However, we also know from UK research that it is common for people to visit their GP with food-associated illness and that about a quarter of the UK population have diarrhoea each year1. The causes of food-associated illness are not always determined; of the estimated £9bn annual cost to the UK of these illnesses, £6bn are from unknown causes. Therefore, some microbial hazards are not only challenging to prevent from entering the food chain, but also to detect in foods and food settings. In studies that examined these cases more closely, the cause was often a microbial pathogen that had been carried over into food from the environment or from livestock or even from people. A solution to these food safety challenges is to catalyse collaborative research between scientific experts, the food industry and food policy partners to robustly consider and act upon new opportunities to make food safer. Applying science as a collaborative network In association with the Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council of UK Research & Innovation (BBSRC-UKRI) and the Food Standards Agency (FSA), the Quadram Institute in Norwich established the new UK Food Safety Research Network (FSRN)2 in April 2022. Acting as a hub for scientific innovation and collaborative research that addresses complex challenges, the Network is creating a community from amongst representatives of the food industry, government departments and academia and developing a shared vision and plan for research that can improve the safety of foods now and in the future. The specific remit of the Network is to address microbial risks in the food chain; as the Network was created it became increasingly clear that more than just ‘microbiology’ was going to be in scope. Interviews with Network members and stakeholders during our establishment stages highlighted that there is a ‘new edge’ to biological research in foods based on new technologies and the dynamic economic and environmental sustainability drivers that are currently shaping food system transformations and which transcend traditional biological questions on food hygiene. At this edge, it is possible to pursue research and training that benefits the food system by collectively harnessing interdisciplinary expertise for cutting-edge technologies, rich food system data and theory, and an existing understanding of social and economic factors. The goal of the UK's FSRN is to take a multi-stakeholder approach to apply science to the food safety challenges prioritised within this community. The focus will be areas where collaborative research or training can build new capacity or knowledge that benefits food safety. Within the Network, policy and industry sectors are now coming together with scientific researchers via: exercises that define food safety problems, funded collaborative research projects and food safety training fora. It is important that the FSRN develops successful pathways to curate new relationships between academic researchers and food stakeholders, who are directly facing and motivated to address the evolving risks and challenges in the food system. We have learned that many in the food industry recognise the need for research and developmental activities that address food safety challenges. However, for some producers (often small and medium sized enterprises) there is little bandwidth beyond the operational challenges of their business to participate in such research. The FSRN is providing a platform for food industry members and academic researchers to make these connections and expedite adoption of effective food safety solutions by directly supporting and resourcing co-designed collaborative projects. Building a community to identify ‘problems worth solving’ that increase the safety of UK foods To scope the key food safety risks that would have a meaningful impact on UK foods if pursued in collaborative projects, we are engaging with members of our community of experts that represent primary food producers, food retailers and food sector trade associations. In a series of one-on-one interviews, we documented members’ experiences and perspectives about what they considered to be the contemporary, emerging and perceived food safety challenges that, if addressed, would bring value to their products and for which they could foresee a route to impact within the food system. Scientific perspectives on food safety risks and challenges were simultaneously sought from stakeholders from across scientific disciplines representing the environment, animals and human health. These included veterinarians, virologists, data scientists and social scientists. Perspectives were also sought from: government institutes, knowledge transfer networks and professional bodies specialising in food system studies, policy and training. It is from this multi-disciplinary and multi-sector community that an ability to address complex food safety issues emerges. A broad view of the issues affecting food safety The food system comprises many social, environmental and political factors that together can affect the foods that are produced and those that are sought by consumers. In our initial problem definition interviews, many of these ‘macro’ factors were repeatedly cited by stakeholders as conceivably having a significant consequence to food safety and shelf life because changes to how foods are produced and stored can impact the ecology of any microbes present. Amongst these extensive and overlapping macro factors, there are multiple points in the food chain at which food safety challenges can emerge and then endure as microbial risks, even those not easily identifiable as risks at the outset. For example, new economic pressures, such as those introduced by COVID-19 and Brexit, that affect supply and distribution networks introduce changes to the sourcing and availability of food ingredients; as food ingredients change so do the standards used to produce them, potentially impacting both the microbial composition and safety profile of individual ingredients. Likewise, economic pressures have resulted in other market shifts, such as the availability of CO2 supplies and operational costs related to the energy crisis. Supplies of CO2 have a direct impact on the ability to introduce modified atmosphere packaging (MAP), which is a preservative that inhibits both pathogenic and spoilage microbes. If food storage temperatures are increased to save on energy costs (e.g. during refrigeration), then basic microbial control measures that are currently effective will be compromised and could lead to altered microbial risk profiles. Food storage conditions were also highlighted from an environmental perspective. As our climate changes so does the ability to maintain optimal storage temperatures in some settings. In addition, global impacts to the environment and agriculture have increasingly led to changes in water, carbon and temperature cycles with direct effects on microbial ecology, e.g. microbial profiles in irrigation waters. As microbial composition changes in this critical agricultural resource, it was easy for our interviewees to conceive how the overall risk of pathogen transmission during primary plant and livestock production could increase. Further ‘upstream’ in the food chain, our stakeholders commonly felt that changes in consumer preference and regulation of food categories sold in retail settings could also conceivably impact food safety. For example, the demand for new plant-based foods means food producers are developing product lines that use new ingredients (e.g. alternative proteins, micro-and macro-algae), new culturing technologies, or new processing techniques, while the overall knowledge of microbial risks for food safety and shelf life of these new categories may be lagging behind their arrival on retail shelves. Furthermore, consumers are also seeking food packaging that reduces plastic use; this requires the introduction of new materials or new methods of packaging (e.g. vacuum packing versus MAP). In addition, governments are regulating for reduced contents of salt, sugar and fat. Each of these changes potentially shifts the ecology and risk of microbes present on foods. Factors impacting food safety and microbial contamination more locally within particular food production settings were also discussed during our stakeholder interviews. For example, cleaning and hygiene is a cornerstone of food safety yet the effectiveness of some disinfection and sanitising agents is uncertain and there can be engineering issues associated with food contact surfaces that make them challenging to clean or maintain at controlled temperatures. Stakeholders also cited that there are knowledge gaps on microbial risks in food product categories or gaps in the ability to implement best food safety practices conceivably exacerbated by labour shortages, which aligns with global economic and political pressures. All of these challenges represent an opportunity for research and for the identification of new knowledge to inform interventions or policies that could improve the safety of food. They also provide a view on emerging food safety risks that require participation from a multitude of stakeholders and scientific disciplines if they are to be appropriately studied and effectively addressed. Brokering project partnerships around priority areas of applied food safety research Following our broad scoping of food safety challenges, the next key activity of the FSRN was to coordinate distribution of resources that supported both innovation and collaboration. We understood that many in our community had not directly participated in collaborative research activities previously, and that for some, Network support would be needed to broker partnerships and develop project plans that could draw on collective insights, data and technologies from across the Network. We also understood that some members were already tuned into food safety research around microbial risk and were ready to act with their partners. In August 2022, we opened the FSRN's first call for proposals. Using a streamlined application process, project applications could be submitted that were either ‘ready to fund and ready to act’ or were ‘expressions of interest’ for projects that needed further time to develop. As a guide to all applicants we publicised three prioritised areas as a framework for collaborative projects based on the earlier stakeholder feedback (Figure 1). Figure 1Open in figure viewerPowerPoint The Food Safety Research Network's priority areas. As a guide to all applicants we publicised three prioritised areas as a framework for collaborative projects based on the earlier stakeholder feedback. Firstly, to address known microbial risks, we sought new evidence for interventions that reduce pathogens, such as Salmonella, Campylobacter or Listeria, which continue to be problematic in some foods and food production settings. Secondly, to increase our understanding of the perceived microbial risk in new food categories and production systems, we sought studies on alternative proteins and new plant-based foods. Lastly, to improve the safety of ready-to-eat (RTE) foods, we sought to develop new ways to apply food safety knowledge and new tools to address this established high-risk food category. As an outcome of our first call for proposals, the successful ‘ready to act’ projects included activities that will develop and assess applications of bacteriophage for control of Salmonella and Listeria contamination in settings such as aquaculture and raw pet food production. Our prioritised area of research on novel foods was represented in a project that will profile the microbial communities of crickets (Acheta domesticus) and assess the production systems for this alternative protein, while other projects will test the efficacy of novel biocide combinations and develop new diagnostic technologies that will support pathogen environmental monitoring programmes. Fried crickets For the ‘expression of interest’ stream we received proposals from industry Network members from across the food chain, ranging from animal producers and primary producers to trade associations; we also received proposals from government departments with mandates outside the food chain. From the successful proposals we are facilitating planning with the applicants, other stakeholders and funders to develop these ideas towards large collaborative projects; further information will be forthcoming from the FSRN on these opportunities and the fora (such as stakeholder workshops) that will be used to progress them. Examples of the areas that were prioritised for additional collaborative work include: conducting focal studies on pathogen transmission in livestock production and the spill-over of microbes into meat-based foods; establishing and promoting fit-for-purpose best practices that improve the safety and shelf life of RTE foods; advancing bacteriophage applications to provide evidence to move beyond existing regulatory barriers; understanding the food safety implications of climate change; filling a gap in certification and guidance on food safety for primary producers; facilitating the availability of microbial testing data amongst partners to enhance trend analyses and overall horizon scanning on microbial risks; developing new methods for investigating foodborne viruses (e.g. norovirus; hepatitis E). As project applications and expressions of interest were received during our call for proposals, we realised that not only can the Network provide partners with essential financial resources to conduct collaborative studies, but also a legitimate entry point to communicate ideas and identify partners. Thus, the FSRN has established a framework for collaborative processes where members become mutually aware of food safety networking and research opportunities. Further, there is also the opportunity to connect with other UK food system network programmes, such as the Transforming UK Food Systems Strategic Partnership Fund3, FSA's PATH-SAFE4 and Innovate UK's KTN Food5, to amplify food safety objectives across multiple partners. Mobilising food safety knowledge Paraphrasing from our stakeholder interviews, key findings from industry were that ‘we need simple tools to interpret test results and their implication for food safety’ and that ‘what we don't need is an expensive list of microbes that we don't know what to do with’. These were powerful sentiments and we understand that for some food industry members their capacity to take new action and adopt scientific advancements supporting their food safety aims can be limited due to accessibility and practicality of scientific information or technologies. As such, the ultimate goal of the FSRN is to bring forward Network discoveries that are game changing by working directly with food producers and other food industry members in a manner that is continually informed by their perspectives and ensures their active involvement in piloting or demonstration of new technologies or knowledge. We have also identified that not all knowledge that should be acted upon needs to be new knowledge. Stakeholders asked that FSRN members exploit existing studies, platforms and experiences within the Network's collaborative projects and promote their accessibility. This would create opportunities to upcycle existing data sets that have value for contemporary food safety challenges but which have not been broadly applied by scientific or stakeholder communities. This would also create long-term impact and value from previously funded research. Further, the FSRN plans to publicly promote and extend the impactful methods and knowledge developed in our collaborative research programmes. We will host a series of training events and sponsor the exchange of scientists and food industry employees between Network member sites. A goal is for our programmes to actively support skills development around food safety and interoperability between Network partners. These include professional groups, such as veterinarians and environmental health officers, and our partners in the food industry, who all have key roles in enhancing the safety of UK foods. Matthew W. Gilmour and Maria H. Traka, UK Food Safety Research Network, Quadram Institute Bioscience, Norwich, UK email foodsafetynetwork@quadram.ac.uk web quadram.ac.uk/food-safety-research-network/ References 1 Food Standards Agency. 2020. Foodborne disease estimates for the United Kingdom in 2018. Available from: https://www.food.gov.uk/research/foodborne-disease/foodborne-disease-estimates-for-the-united-kingdom-in-2018 2 Quadram Institute. 2020. Food safety research network. Available from: https://quadram.ac.uk/food-safety-research-network/ 3 Global Food Security. 2022. Transforming UK food systems SPF. Available from: https://www.foodsecurity.ac.uk/research/foodsystems-spf/ 4 Food Standards Agency. 2022. Pathogen surveillance in agriculture, food and environment programme. Available from: https://www.food.gov.uk/our-work/pathogen-surveillance-in-agriculture-food-and-environment-programme 5Innovate UK, KTN. 2022. Food. Available from: https://ktn-uk.org/agrifood/food/ Volume36, Issue4December 2022Pages 42-45 FiguresReferencesRelatedInformation

Foodborne diseases have become a significant threat to public health worldwide. Development of analytical techniques that enable fast and accurate detection of foodborne pathogens is significant for food science and safety research. Assays based on lanthanide (Ln) ion-doped upconversion nanoparticles (UCNPs) show up as a cutting edge platform in biomedical fields because of the superior physicochemical features of UCNPs, including negligible autofluorescence, large signal-to-noise ratio, minimum photodamage to biological samples, high penetration depth, and attractive optical and chemical features. In recent decades, this novel and promising technology has been gradually introduced to food safety research. Herein, we have reviewed the recent progress of Ln3+-doped UCNPs in food safety research with emphasis on the following aspects: 1) the upconversion mechanism and detection principles; 2) the history of UCNPs development in analytical chemistry; 3) the in-depth state-of-the-art synthesis strategies, including synthesis protocols for UCNPs, luminescence, structure, morphology, and surface engineering; 4) applications of UCNPs in foodborne pathogens detection, including mycotoxins, heavy metal ions, pesticide residue, antibiotics, estrogen residue, and pathogenic bacteria; and 5) the challenging and future perspectives of using UCNPs in food safety research. Considering the diversity and complexity of the foodborne harmful substances, developing novel detections and quantification techniques and the rigorous investigations about the effect of the harmful substances on human health should be accelerated.

In Maryland, county Food Protection Programs (FPP), housed within Environmental Public Health (EPH) Divisions, maintain responsibility for regular inspection of all food service facilities (FSF). With growing concerns about how our food supply is protected, it is important to determine the state and effectiveness of our food safety systems. This research elucidates the roles, responsibilities, strengths, and weaknesses of Food Safety and Protection Programs in Maryland. A 16-question survey tool, which addressed facets of the local food protection infrastructure, including FSF inspections, staffing, budget, and foodborne illness surveillance, was distributed to all 24 county FPP. The number of FSF in Maryland increased 97% from 2001 to 2006 and counties had an average inspection completion rate of 73%, with a 4% increase over the time period. Statewide, there were 4.1 EPH full-time employees (FTE) per 10 000 population and 1.6 FPP FTE per 10 000 population. EPH Division budgets increased 63% statewide, from $19.5 million in 2000 to $31.9 million in 2007. FPP budgets also increased 59% over the period, from $6.2 million in 2000 to $9.8 million in 2007. This study offers new quantitative measures of the demands, capacities, and performance of Food Protection and Safety Programs in Maryland. This assessment of local EPH and FPP capacity also offers insight into the strengths and weaknesses of the local food protection and safety infrastructure. Importantly, it reveals an infrastructure and dedicated food protection workforce that inspects the food supply and responds to foodborne illness outbreaks. Yet, resources vary substantially from county to county, impacting which services can be provided and how well they can be performed. This can, in turn, impact the potential risk of foodborne illness and the public's overall health.

Position of the American Dietetic Association: Food and Water Safety

Use of the Conceptual Change Teaching Method to Address Food Safety Among Native American and Hispanic Food Preparers

This introductory article provides an overview of preharvest food safety activities and initiatives for the past 15 years. The section on traditional areas of preharvest food safety focuses on significant scientific advancements that are a culmination of collaborative efforts (both public health and agriculture) and significant research results. The highlighted advancements provide the foundation for exploring future preharvest areas and for improving and focusing on more specific intervention/control/prevention strategies. Examples include Escherichia coli and cattle, Salmonella and Campylobacter in poultry, and interventions and prevention and control programs. The section on "nontraditional" preharvest food safety areas brings attention to potential emerging food safety issues and to future food safety research directions. These include organic production, the FDA's Produce Rule (water and manure), genomic sequencing, antimicrobial resistance, and performance metrics. The concluding section emphasizes important themes such as strategic planning, coordination, epidemiology, and the need for understanding food safety production as a continuum. Food safety research, whether at the pre- or postharvest level, will continue to be a fascinating complex web of foodborne pathogens, risk factors, and scientific and policy interactions. Food safety priorities and research must continue to evolve with emerging global issues, emerging technologies, and methods but remain grounded in a multidisciplinary, collaborative, and systematic approach.

Food safety is a critical and persistent public health issue. The concerns associated with food safety are further intensified by improper hygiene, poor food handling practices, and contaminated food supplies, leading to a financial burden of foodborne disease (FBD). The FBDs are often linked to consumer illness, which bears high medical costs and loss of productivity and sales. To combat the threat of FBDs, an increased and comprehensive awareness of food safety is of paramount importance. The safety of the food enormously influences consumer health. There are several factors that ensure the safety of processed and packaged food commodities from pathogenic microorganisms, such as Listeria monocytogenes, Escherichia coli O157:H7, Toxoplasma gondii, Campylobacter jejuni, Salmonella, Staphylococcus aureus, Campylobacter coli, Bacillus cereus, Norovirus, and numerous others that can deleteriously impact human health. Hence considering the roles that food safety plays in both health and development, relevant actions have been taken by various agencies in different nations to improve the safety of the food supplied to the consumers. In the United States, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) are key agencies providing food safety guidelines, standards, and policies to US entities and many other nations. The European Food Safety Authority and the Food Standards Agency in the United Kingdom were authorized to survey the quality and safety of foods sold in stores. In addition, they are also assigned the responsibility of performing research in food safety and, therefore, plays crucial roles in uplifting the food safety scenario in the EU, the UK, and across the globe. Various foodborne diseases cause significant morbidity and mortality worldwide. Historically, efforts to reduce the life-threatening consequences of food contamination have been made by innovation in food preservation. Sun drying and cooking were conceivably the first methods used; later more sophisticated technologies, such as fermentation and canning, came into existence. In recent times, advanced technologies in food preservation and packaging have made food safer. As the global population is increasing, scientists with innovative approaches towards science and technology are working efficiently to provide the best quality and safest foods to consumers. In between these approaches, nanotechnology provides an advanced and powerful platform utilizing unique properties of materials emerging from nanometric size (1-100 nm) that have the prospect of revolutionizing agriculture and food sectors, biomedicine, environment safety, energy conservation, and many other areas.

Development of a Food Safety and Nutrition Education Program for Adolescents by Applying Social Cognitive Theory

Introduction: The public health concern over food safety and complications accompanying improper food safety practices continue to persist globally. Approximately 600 million individuals worldwide experience food hygiene-related illness with an additional 420,000 dying from food hygiene-related complications each year. In Nigeria, over 200,000 deaths occur from foodborne illness annually and the problem is further exacerbated by inadequate infrastructure, poor regulations, and limited awareness of food safety and hygiene practices among food handlers and consumers. Thus, this study is designed to determine the effect of food safety and hygiene training programme on the knowledge and practices of food handlers in restaurants and canteens in Southern Senatorial District of Cross River State, Nigeria. The Information-Motivation-Behavioural Skills Model will be used for this study. Method: A quasi-experimental design (with pre-and post-test assessment) will be adopted for this study. The study population will consist of all food handlers operating in restaurants and canteens in the study area with at least six months of work experience who give consent to participate. The estimated sample size will be 74 each for the control and intervention groups. Ethics and dissemination: Ethical approval will be sought from the Cross River State Ministry of Health Research Ethics Committee. The intervention strategy will be a clustered nutrition education programme with focus on food hygiene and safety practices, directed at food handlers in restaurants and canteens in the intervention group. The proposed instrument for data collection will be questionnaire and observational checklist. The knowledge level and food safety practices of the participants before and after the training will be recorded. The limitation of the study could be the potential for bias in self-reported data from food handlers regarding their knowledge and practices towards food safety. Strengths and limitations of this study: This study will find immense significance in that: Assessing the food handlers’ adherence to food safety practices following a training intervention can help build consumer trust and confidence in the safety and quality of the food served. Provide insights into compliance levels and inform regulatory interventions to ensure adherence to standards aimed at enhancing food safety knowledge and practices among food handlers. One limitation of the study could be the potential for bias in self-reported data from food handlers regarding their knowledge and practices towards food safety. There may be a tendency for respondents to provide socially desirable answers or to overestimate their level of knowledge and adherence to food safety practices. To address this limitation, the researcher has employed multiple methods of data collection, such as direct observation of food handling practices in addition to self-report surveys. Direct observation would provide objective data on actual behaviours, allowing for a more accurate assessment of food safety practices. Additionally, validated instruments and anonymous surveys to encourage honest responses from participants would be used.

Foodborne pathogens represent a major burden on society as they are the cause of high numbers of illnesses, hospitalizations, and deaths each year. In addition to their detrimental impact on human health, these microorganisms, which include pathogenic bacteria, viruses, fungi, and a range of parasites, also represent a significant economic cost to food companies in the implementation and constant oversight of food hygiene and safety programs, product recalls, and potential litigation if outbreaks occur. Advancing our current knowledge of the food processing chain and its vulnerabilities to the many factors related to foodborne pathogens (e.g., their stress response, survival and persistence in processing environments, acquisition of virulence factors and antimicrobial drug resistance) is paramount to the development of effective strategies for early detection and control of pathogens, thereby improving food safety.<br /><br />This Special Issue compiled original research articles contributing to a better understanding of the impact of all aspects of foodborne pathogens on food safety.

The last century of food animal agriculture is a remarkable triumph of scientific research. Knowledge derived through research has resulted in the development and use of new technologies that have increased the efficiency of food production and created a huge animal production and food manufacturing industry capable of feeding the US population while also providing significant quantities of high-quality food for export to other countries. Although the US food supply is among the safest in the world, the US Center for Disease Prevention and Control estimates that 76 million people get sick, more than 300,000 are hospitalized, and 5,000 die each year from foodborne illness. Consequently, preventing foodborne illness and death remains a major public health concern. Challenges to providing a safe, abundant, and nutritious food supply are complex because all aspects of food production, from farm to fork, must be considered. Given the national and international demand and expectations for food safety as well as the formidable challenges of producing and maintaining a safe food supply, food safety research and educational programs have taken on a new urgency. Remarkable progress has been made during the last century. Wisdom from a century of animal agriculture research now includes the realization that on-farm pathogens are intricately associated with animal health and well-being, the production of high-quality food, and profitability. In this review, some of the developments that have occurred over the last few decades are summarized, including types, sources, and concentrations of disease-causing pathogens encountered in food-producing animal environments and their association with food safety; current and future methods to control or reduce foodborne pathogens on the farm; and present and future preharvest food safety research directions. Future scientific breakthroughs will no doubt have a profound impact on animal agriculture and the production of high-quality food, but we will also be faced with moral, ethical, and societal dilemmas that must be reconciled. A strong, science-based approach that addresses all the complex issues involved in continuing to improve food safety and public health is necessary to prevent foodborne illnesses. Not only must research be conducted to solve complex food safety issues, but results of that research must also be communicated effectively to producers and consumers.

Evaluation of an Educational Intervention Using the Enhanced Food Safety Cost-of-Illness Model

The use of biological soil amendments of animal origin (BSAAOs) to improve soil fertility and quality plays an important role in organic agriculture in the U.S. However, organic practices, such as untreated manure application, may introduce foodborne pathogens and consequently increase the risk of fresh produce contamination. Certified organic farms follow the USDA-National Organic Program (NOP) standards, which stipulate a 90- or 120-day waiting period between incorporating raw manure into the soil and crop harvest, depending on whether the edible portions of the crops come into indirect or direct contact, respectively, with the soil. To determine knowledge, attitudes, behaviors, and practices of organic farmers related to use of biological soil amendments, we employed three evaluation tools: a national workshop held at the University of California-Davis (UC-Davis); multiple in-person focus groups (listening sessions) conducted around the United States, and an online survey. Results reveal that untreated BSAAOs (untreated manure and immature composted manure) are critical tools in organic production for managing soil fertility and improving soil quality. Overall, organic producers surveyed in this study agreed that there is a need for more science-based data to evaluate and establish an appropriately protective time interval between untreated manure application and crop harvest to reduce the risk of surviving foodborne pathogens contaminating organic fresh produce. This study highlights the need for development of outreach and educational tools intended to help organic producers implement mitigation strategies to reduce food safety risks related to BSAAOs in organically grown produce covered by the Produce Safety Rule (PSR) of the U.S. Food and Drug Administration Food Safety Modernization Act (FSMA). This study informs and will aid prioritization of research (e.g., on a time interval protective of fresh produce food safety when soil is amended with animal-biological amendments in organic fresh produce systems) and outreach programs (e.g., GAPs, food safety programs, soil testing, pre-harvest food safety mitigation strategies, and organic rules and regulations) aimed at improving food safety for organic vegetable, fruit, and nut growers who use animal-based soil inputs, including amendments and rotational grazing.

Food safety trends: From globalization of whole genome sequencing to application of new tools to prevent foodborne diseases

Food safety continues to be a challenge in many food companies especially in emerging economies, which are confronted with multiple issues in both the internal and external company environment. Previous efforts to improve food safety performance have been hinged on traditional and technical-oriented approaches such as sampling, testing, inspections, food safety management systems (FSMS) and auditing, which have proven to be not always adequate evidenced by inconsistencies in food safety performance. To enhance food safety performance in food companies, researchers proposed to look beyond these traditional and technical-oriented approaches towards a more integrated approach and suggested the adoption and strengthening of a positive and pro-active food safety culture (FS-culture). FS-culture encompasses a company’s technological and organisational conditions, characteristics of the individuals within the company and the company’s environment, in addition to the existing FSMS. However, FS-culture research is still developing when compared with other culture research domains such as organisational and safety culture. Moreover, there are still knowledge gaps on what FS-culture entails, its measurement, its relationship with food safety performance and how it could be improved. This thesis, therefore, focused on understanding how an organisation’s FS-culture influences food safety and hygiene-related behaviour and food safety performance of an organisation.The literature review presented in chapter 2 identified determinants for conducting FS-culture research. Findings revealed that numerous factors transcending different disciplines are interlinked and as such a systems approach is required to assess an organisation’s FS-culture. The review showed that several elements i.e. individual, group, organisational, technological and company environment characteristics are necessary to evaluate FS-culture, and its influence on food handler behaviour and food safety performance. Moreover, the research suggested that a company’s food safety risks should be considered and to recognise the hierarchical levels as well. The research also suggested defining measurable indicators, development of classification systems, and the use of a triangulated methodology. The resultant determinants provided a basis upon which further FS-culture research could be built on.As a result of these findings, elements suggested in the review were validated in chapter 3 as they enabled an understanding of the prevailing FS-culture of the companies investigated. Moreover, a mixed-methods approach was presented to assess the prevailing FS-culture, with dairy food companies in Zimbabwe as a case study. The methods included: microbial analysis to assess the microbial safety, observations to evaluate actual behaviour, card-aided interviews to assess organisational and technological enabling conditions, questionnaires and storytelling to collect data on employee characteristics, and document analysis to get insight into the microbial safety performance and actual behaviour. Results showed that a mixed-methods approach is suitable in FS-culture assessments due to the method triangulation, which could potentially increase the validity of the research findings. Both the FS-culture elements and the mixed-methods approach enabled the prevailing FS-culture to be distinguished into identified classification levels (reactive, active, proactive) further enhancing their validity.Based on the empirical study, a FS-culture research framework was further developed in Chapter 4, to concurrently assess the prevailing FS-culture of companies differing in product riskiness, as well as the company’s internal and external environment. The framework assessed the following factors: supportiveness of the organisational and technological enabling conditions, employee characteristics, intended and actual behaviour, food safety performance, and the internal (food safety vision, food safety programs, vulnerability of production systems) and external (national values and food safety governance) company environment. The framework was applied to Zimbabwean food companies differing in product riskiness i.e. low, medium and high-risk. Results indicated no direct relationship between product riskiness and FS-culture. However, the company environment seemed to be associated with the prevailing FS-culture. Regarding the internal environment, the vulnerability of the food production system (i.e. susceptibility to microbial contamination) seemed to influence the prevailing FS-culture. With respect to the external environment, food safety governance and national values seemed to influence the way food safety was prioritised, food safety programs were designed, and the way food handlers executed their tasks in actual practice.Chapter 5 further explored the role of the internal and external company environment on an organisation’s FS-culture, in companies operating in Greece, China, Tanzania and Zambia. Both the internal and external company environment seemed to influence the prevailing FS-culture. Companies in African countries (i.e. Tanzania and Zambia) exhibited similarities in the implementation of food safety programs, and in the national values and food safety governance when compared to Greece and China. Food safety governance was reflected in the food safety programs and supportiveness of the organisation to food safety and hygiene. Hofstede cultural dimensions i.e. uncertainty avoidance, masculinity and long vs short-term orientation, reflecting national values, were significantly statistically correlated with aspects of FS-culture such as risk perceptions, attitude and the enabling conditions.Chapter 6 discusses the overall findings in this thesis and presents a broader outlook on FS-culture from an organisational, individual and company environment perspective. Furthermore, a stepwise approach to create, improve and sustain an organisation’s FS-culture is presented. Practical implications of findings in this thesis and recommendations for further research and for the food companies studied are presented.Overall, the research presented in this thesis contributes to the existing literature on FS-culture by providing research determinants that could be useful as a basis upon which further FS-culture research can be built on. Moreover, it provides a FS-culture research framework and assessment grids that can be used for the concurrent analysis and differentiated assessment of an organisation’s prevailing FS-culture, food safety performance, and the internal and external company environment. The mixed-methods approach could enable an in-depth analysis of an organisation’s FS-culture through method-triangulation. Insights provided in this thesis could enable the identification of the prevailing FS-culture, which could be useful in designing effective interventions to create, improve, strengthen and sustain a positive FS-culture. The stepwise approach developed in this thesis could help identify improvement opportunities towards a positive and sustainable FS-culture, thereby contributing to better food safety performance