Food Loss and Waste Prevention Strategies from Farm to Fork

Food loss and waste undermine the resilience and sustainability of global food systems, jeopardising progress toward the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Adopting healthier and more sustainable diets could help reduce global food loss and waste, but the potential trade-offs on food loss and waste trends and interactions with standalone reduction policies remain largely unexplored. We aimed to investigate the effects of reducing food loss and waste within the context of a global dietary transition by 2050, shedding light on the synergies and trade-offs between two crucial policy areas for the food systems of the future. In this economic modelling study, we linked the economic and technical modelling of food loss and waste by adding consistent tracing of food loss and waste in physical quantities along global (ie, domestic and international) food supply chains within a global computable general equilibrium (CGE) modelling framework. This framework captures the behavioural responses of economic actors along food and non-food supply chains. We built on the Global Trade Analysis Project (GTAP) Data Base, incorporating data extensions for energy, nutritional accounts, and food loss and waste flows along stages of global supply chains. We first investigated the impact of halving global food loss and waste through technological developments by 2050, in line with the SDG 12.3 target. We then analysed the impact of transitioning to healthier and more sustainable diets by 2050, promoting a global dietary transition through behavioural changes. We explored this dietary transition both with and without the goal of halving global food loss and waste, highlighting how food loss and waste targets interact with dietary changes on a global scale. Our scenarios were chosen to show how the magnitude, composition, location, and reuse potential of food loss and food waste could evolve under different scenarios compared with business-as-usual dietary developments. Food loss and waste along global supply chains were projected to rise by 52·0% by 2050 under the continuation of historical trends. Diet shifts alone were projected to be insufficient to curb this rise in food loss and waste, with demographic trends and growing incomes driving the total volume of lost and discarded food. Regional spillover effects of healthier diets-whereby low-income countries increase plant-based food production to meet growing demand in high-income countries-exacerbated food loss and waste trends, especially in sub-Saharan Africa and the Middle East and north Africa. In sub-Saharan Africa, rapid population growth and increased per-capita gross domestic product drove food loss and waste when dietary changes were implemented (an increase of 132·2% from 2014 to 2050) and when standalone food loss and waste reduction targets were applied (an increase of 61·8% from 2014 to 2050). Globally, dietary shifts were projected to drive food loss and waste for oilseeds and fish, surpassing baseline levels by 2050. Further spillovers emerged in high-income countries where demand for fresh plant-based foods was shown to drive losses at production stages. Global trade was also found to amplify food loss and waste in exporting regions, as increasing exports of plant-based products from sub-Saharan Africa and Latin America to Europe, the USA, and India increased farm-level food loss and waste. Coupling dietary transitions with targeted food loss and waste reduction policies in line with SDG 12.3 successfully controlled spillover effects on a global scale. A combined strategy could reduce global food loss and waste by 63·2%, eliminating commodity-specific and stage-specific spillovers and enhancing the effectiveness of dietary changes. Potential benefits were particularly notable in sub-Saharan Africa where nutritional availability could increase by an average of 365 calories per capita per day by 2050. Policies promoting healthier diets must consider spillover effects on food loss and waste (eg, a potential rise in loss and waste generation when global consumption shifts towards plant-based products). As shifts in production, consumption, and trade alter the magnitude, location, and composition of food loss and waste, monitoring these changes is crucial to establishing the priority areas for food loss and waste reduction or reuse interventions, especially in low-income regions. Although dietary shifts can improve nutrition, new technologies and market-based approaches to reuse discarded food and food waste-whether linked to domestic consumption or trade-could create economic opportunities and environmental benefits. To maximise these benefits, food loss and waste reduction should be central to discussions on dietary transition policies, as spillover effects risk undermining the positive outcomes of a global dietary shift. None.

Reducing our waste size

Food, water and energy are three fundamental areas of strategic importance that are closely interrelated for the survival of all living organisms and preserving a healthy ecosystem. Meeting the sustainable food needs and fighting hunger to ensure adequate, balanced and healthy nutrition for the increasing world population are among the top priorities of countries and international organizations. Food loss and waste are important problems globally. Food loss is defined as the decrease in the quantity and the quality of food as a result of the decisions and actions of food suppliers in the stages of the food production chain from primary production to distribution,whereas food waste refers to the decrease in the quantity and quality of food as a result of the decisions and actions of retailers, food service providers and consumers. Food loss and waste throughout the food supply chain begin at the field and farm stage in primary production and goes through a complex and multi-factorial process that includes storage, transportation, processing, packaging, retail and consumption stages. Food loss and waste vary greatly from country to country and even within the same country, depending on product type, geographical region and socio-economic factors. In high- and middle-income countries, food loss and waste occur mainly at the distribution and consumption stage, and in lowincome countries at the production and post-harvest stages. The global dimensions of food loss and waste are significant and cause environmental, social and economic risks and threats. Some 1,3 billion tons of food, approximately 1/3 of the total food produced worldwide, is lost and wasted annually. The economic loss caused by food loss and waste is approximately 1 trillion US dollars every year. Food loss and waste cause unnecessary use of 20-23% of the agricultural production area,24% of water consumption and 20-23% of chemical fertilizers and pesticides. Food loss and waste cause 8% of global greenhouse gas emissions. About 38% of the total energy expenditure in the food supply chain is wasted through food loss and waste. Türkiye is one of the leading countries globally that waste the most food at the level of end consumer. According to the 2021 report of the United Nations Environment Program report, the United Nations Environment Program, 93 kilograms per person, a total of 7,7 million tons of food, is wasted every year at home, food service places and food vendors in Türkiye. Studies and policy targets reveal that approximately half of global food loss and waste can be prevented, and even if one quarter of it is prevented, the global hunger problem may be solved. In this context, reducing food loss and waste will make significant contributions to ensuring price stability by reducing production costs and fighting hunger, food security and healthy nutrition, sustainable environment and agriculture and food systems through mitigating climate change impacts, biodiversity protection, efficient use of agricultural lands and water resources. This chapter provides information on the global dimensions of food loss and waste and its social, economic and environmental impacts.

In line with the trend of population growth in the world, increasing food production becomes imperative for the agricultural sector, especially since even with the current population, one billion people were malnourished or hungry. The opportunity to increase food production is mainly reduced to increasing yields and is less based on increasing cultivated areas and the number of domestic animals. The productivity of agriculture increases through its intensification, that is, greater application of artificially produced inputs (fertilizers, pesticides, antibiotics, etc.), which threatens the health safety of the food produced in this way and leads to an increase in nature pollution. This closes a circle in which the survival of humanity is conditioned by the reduction of health food safety and the degradation of the environment. As a logical counterbalance, an ecological movement emerged that advocates food production based on sustainable principles, the use of natural inputs and processes, and the preservation of nature. That logic would be acceptable to everyone if it did not materialize in the contradiction of "more ecology, less (more expensive) food". In addition to environmental activists, the goal of producing food in an ecologically acceptable manner was also adopted by the EU as one of its longterm strategic goals (the so-called "Green Plan"). One of the possibilities of increased satisfaction of the food needs of the world population, instead of increasing its production, is the reduction of losses and waste of already produced food, which has become one of the world's development goals since 2015 (SDG 12.3. - halve global food waste per capita at the retail level and consumer level and reduce food losses along production and supply chains by 2030). Terminologically, food losses are related to the phases of its production, distribution and processing, and food waste to the phase of food trade and consumption. Practically, the effect of increasing food production can be substituted by the effect of reducing food losses and waste, which has become a new challenge for all participants in the food supply chain, from producers, through distributors and traders to consumers. The scientific community is also one of the participants in that process, which contributes with its research to identify causes and find solutions to reduce food losses and waste. The facts presented in this chapter aim to draw attention to the issue of food losses and waste with a focus on the situation in Bosnia and Herzegovina. The treatment of the selected topic begins with the argumentation of the growing need for food in the world, primarily due to the increase in the number of inhabitants and the goal of eradicating hunger and malnutrition. It continues with the projection of limited possibilities for the production of significantly larger quantities of food in the future. After that, the concepts of food loss and waste and ways of measuring them are introduced. The key chapter is the dedicated to assessing the scope and causes of food losses and waste in Bosnia and Herzegovina. An overview of food losses and waste along the supply chain is also given, based on selected literature sources. The chapter ends with a review of the hierarchy of food waste disposal with concrete proposals for reducing food losses and waste in the BiH environment.

Food waste has been identified as one of the major factors that constitute numerous anthropogenic activities, especially in developing countries. There is a growing problem with food waste that affects every part of the waste management system, from collection to disposal; finding long-term solutions necessitates involving all participants in the food supply chain, from farmers and manufacturers to distributors and consumers. In addition to food waste management, maintaining food sustainability and security globally is crucial so that every individual, household, and nation can always get food. “End hunger, achieve food security and enhanced nutrition, and promote sustainable agriculture” are among the main challenges of global sustainable development (SDG) goal 2. Therefore, sustainable food waste management technology is needed. Recent attention has been focused on global food loss and waste. One-third of food produced for human use is wasted every year. Source reduction (i.e., limiting food losses and waste) and contemporary treatment technologies appear to be the most promising strategy for converting food waste into safe, nutritious, value-added feed products and achieving sustainability. Food waste is also employed in industrial processes for the production of biofuels or biopolymers. Biofuels mitigate the detrimental effects of fossil fuels. Identifying crop-producing zones, bioenergy cultivars, and management practices will enhance the natural environment and sustainable biochemical process. Traditional food waste reduction strategies are ineffective in lowering GHG emissions and food waste treatment. The main contribution of this study is an inventory of the theoretical and practical methods of prevention and minimization of food waste and losses. It identifies the trade-offs for food safety, sustainability, and security. Moreover, it investigates the impact of COVID-19 on food waste behavior.

Food losses refer to edible food mass decrease throughout the human food chain. Food losses occurring at consumption stage are called food waste. Food Losses and Waste (FLW) represent one of the most critical social, economic and ecological challenges facing humanity, besides being also an ethical issue. FAO data show that roughly one-third of food produced for human consumption is lost or wasted. There are no precise and accurate data regarding food waste in Near East and North Africa (NENA) region. The review paper aims at providing insights about the extent of FLW in NENA region with a special focus on Arab countries and Iran. The paper explores linkages between food waste and food security. Moreover, it analyses the economic and environmental implications of FLW. FLW vary depending on food type, country and season. Generally speaking, postharvest losses are significant in this region for most of commodity groups. It is estimated that FLW amount to 34% of food supply in NENA region. FLW undermine the very foundations of food security and amount to major depletion of resources (e.g. water, land, energy) and produce needlessly greenhouse gases. They also represent a wasted investment that reduces farmers’ incomes and increase consumers’ expenses. Therefore, food waste reduction is crucial for improving the sustainability of the food supply chain and achieving food and nutrition security in the region.

The article summarizes and systematizes the causes and consequences of food loss and waste. The uncontrolled accumulation and inefficient management of loss and waste is a serious problem of food security in many countries. Moreover, the world annually loses or wastes about a third of food produced while natural resources are inefficiently used. A significant number of definitions and terms in the field of food loss and waste cause international inconsistency in management systems. So, systematization of terms and research methods for food loss and waste has been carried out. The review analyzes the stages of food supply chain, i.e. the production of agricultural raw materials, their collection, processing, transportation and consumption, where the largest loss and waste occur. Furthermore, environmental, social and other problems associated with the accumulation of loss and waste are considered. Prevention of food loss and waste has been shown to be a potential strategy to improve the balance of food supply and demand and is essential for improving food security while reducing environmental impact and providing economic benefits to various participants in the food supply chain. Separately, the actions taken by the Russian Federation in the field of waste management and reduction of food loss are considered. Attention is drawn to the fact that the difficulties in solving these problems are associated with insufficient progress in legislation and low funding of relevant research projects. Possible approaches for simulation and optimization of actions to support specific strategies to reduce loss and waste are considered, taking into account the following factors: improving the management of various inventories; developing a clear strategy for planning and allocating resources; forming the supply chain based on variability (uncertainty) of customer demand and supply. Knowledge comparison and integration, as well as optimization of food supply chain management are essential for development of strategies and decisions about where and how to focus efforts to most effectively ensure the reduction of loss and waste at each stage of food supply chain. The main decisions and practices for FLW prevention and management have been systematized.

One of the challenges in food security is the high amount of food loss and food waste. Reducing food loss and food waste in half along the food chain is part of the twelfth SDGs goal. Based on data from The Economist Intelligence Unit (EIU) in 2017, Indonesia was the second highest ranked country with an FLW of 300 kg/person/year. West Java is the province with the highest population in Indonesia and plays an important role in meeting national food needs so that sufficient food availability is required. This study aims to analyze food loss and food waste for food security in West Java. While the specific objectives of this study are to estimate the amount of food loss and strategic food waste in each food chain in West Java, and macronutrients and economic losses from FLW. This study utilizes secondary data with a quantitative descriptive analysis design. The method of calculating food loss and waste uses the formula for the estimated percentage of food loss and waste in South and Southeast Asia by the FAO. The results of this study indicate the estimated total food loss and strategic food waste in West Java in 2018 was 2,04 million tons. In addition, food loss and waste cause a loss of nutritional content such as energy of 335,61 kcal/day, protein of 9,38 grams/day and fat of 3,98 grams/day as well as economic losses of 32,89 trillion rupiah. Food loss and waste must be reduced for greater food security.

Rapid increasing population of Indonesia poses a future threat to the food supply for the national demand. Furthermore, global climate change is putting a strain on the food supply chain. Droughts, floods, landslides, and pest/disease attacks all have serious consequences for agricultural production, particularly food crops. According to The Economist Intelligence Unit (EIU) data published in 2017, Indonesia ranks second in the world in terms of food loss and waste contribution, chasing only Saudi Arabia. Moreover, according to the Food Sustainability Index in the Economist Intelligence Unit (2017), Indonesian food loss and waste or uneaten totalled 1.3 million tons in a single year. In Indonesia, the most common method of dealing with food waste is dumping or landfilling, which produces methane and other greenhouse gases that contribute to climate change. This research was conducted by employing quick survey for colecting primary data and desk evaluation study for collecting secondary data. Meta analysis was employed in this research. Therefore, to emphasize the importance of reducing food loss and waste in Indonesia to reduce food insecurity caused by climate change, this paper investigates how food loss and waste exacerbates climate change. This paper outlined some scenarios for preventing food loss and waste at all stages of the food chain, including agricultural production, post-harvest handling and storage, distribution and consumption behaviour, and government policy, which can be implemented to begin initiatives to reduce food loss and waste to address the threat of future starvation in Indonesia because of climate change.

Yearly, more than 33% of the food produced for human use is lost or discarded. This statement serves as a critical signal regarding the exhaustion of natural resources utilized in the food supply chain (FSC), which could potentially have adverse consequences on food security. Food wastage predominantly occurs at the consumer level, namely in the retail and food service industries. It is more prevalent in affluent nations compared to food loss, which occurs between manufacturing and distribution and is more common in low-income countries. Hence, the prevention of food loss and waste (FLW) can contribute to a more equitable equilibrium between food supply and demand. This is of utmost importance in enhancing food security, mitigating environmental consequences, and yielding financial advantages for the many stakeholders engaged in the FSC. This article provides a comprehensive analysis of case studies, legislative examples from different countries, and initiatives undertaken by non-profit organizations and industry actors in the food chain to efficiently prevent and/or decrease FLW. Furthermore, it enumerates the current limitations and prospective avenues for further investigation. To optimize the allocation of resources, it is essential to analyze and combine information, while also being cognizant of the specific locations in the food chain, categories of food, and countries experiencing the greatest losses.

More research less waste

Мета. Метою дослідження є узагальнення причин втрат продовольства та харчових відходів, обґрунтування підходів для зменшення втрат продовольства та харчових відходів, у першу чергу для малих і середніх суб’єктів господарювання (господарств населення та дрібних фермерів), на кожному з етапів у харчовому ланцюзі та заходів у сфері політики, які сприятимуть їх реалізації. Методологія / методика / підхід. Основою дослідження є теоретичні положення та практичні рекомендації формування системи продовольчого забезпечення, наукові праці вітчизняних і зарубіжних учених щодо проблем втрат продовольства та харчових відходів. Методологічну основу дослідження становили такі методи: абстрагування та узагальнення – при формуванні висновків і рекомендацій; загально-логічний та історичний – під час вивчення доробку вітчизняних та іноземних науковців щодо скорочення втрат продовольства; логічний метод – при встановленні причин та обґрунтуванні заходів щодо запобігання втрат продовольства та харчових відходів; прямого аналізу та синтезу – при розробці пропозицій щодо необхідних ініціатив вирішення проблеми втрати продовольства та харчових відходів на кожному з етапів у харчовому ланцюзі. Результати. Узагальнено причини та заходи щодо скорочення втрат продовольства та харчових відходів; розроблено пропозиції (їх зміст та особливості щодо реалізації окремих підходів) стосовно необхідних ініціатив вирішення проблеми втрати продовольства та харчових відходів на кожному з етапів у харчовому ланцюзі; запропоновано рекомендації, які можуть прискорити реалізацію заходів, направлених на скорочення втрат продовольства та харчових відходів. Оригінальність / наукова новизна. За результатами дослідження дістали подальшого розвитку: систематизація причин втрат продовольства та харчових відходів і відповідних заходів щодо їх запобігання; рекомендації щодо скорочення втрат продовольства та харчових відходів на кожному з етапів у харчовому ланцюзі; заходи у сфері політики щодо скорочення втрат продовольства та харчових відходів. Практична цінність / значущість. Результати дослідження спрямовані на забезпечення стійкої продовольчої системи України в умовах глобалізації. Висновки та пропозиції дослідження можуть бути використані на рівні загальнодержавного, регіонального, місцевого та галузевого планування й застосування підходів щодо забезпечення продовольчої безпеки.

Food losses and waste (FLW) reduction and mitigating climate impact in food chains are priorities in achieving sustainable development goals. However, many FLW-reducing interventions induce additional greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, for example, from energy, fuel, or packaging. The net effect of such interventions (expressed in GHG emissions per unit of food available for consumption) is not obvious, as is illustrated in a number of case studies. We recommend that in the decision to take on FLW-reducing interventions, the trade-offs on sustainability impacts (such as GHG emissions) are taken into consideration. Since FLW induce demand and extra operations in all stages along a supply chain, adequate representation of cumulative GHG emissions along the production and supply chain, including ‘hidden parts’ of the chain, is required, which is challenging in full LCA studies. As a workaround, the case studies in this paper are based on a generic tool, the Agro-Chain greenhouse gas Emission (ACE) calculator that includes metrics and data for common food product categories and supply chain typologies. The calculator represents the structure of a generic (fresh food) supply chain and offers data sets for, amongst others, crop GHG emission factors and FLW in different stages of the production and distribution chain. Through scenario calculations with different chain parameters (describing pre and post-intervention scenarios), the net effects of an intervention on GHG emissions and FLW per unit of food sold to the consumer can be compared with little effort. In the case studies, interventions at the production stage as well as in post-harvest operations, are analyzed. Results show that post-harvest activities (especially FLW) contribute substantially to the carbon footprint of supplied food products. The FLW-reducing interventions are considered to induce additional GHG emissions. In most case studies, FLW-reducing interventions lower total GHG associated with a unit of food supplied to a client or consumer. However, in one case study, the extra emissions due to the intervention were higher than the prevented emission from lowering food losses. Consequently, in the latter case, the intervention is not an effective GHG emission reduction intervention.

Food waste is a critical global challenge with far-reaching environmental and social consequences. Addressing this issue requires understanding consumer behaviours, habits, and knowledge related to food waste. Research on food waste in eating out covers various aspects, including factors that contribute to food waste, consumer behaviour and potential solutions. Key to understanding the problem of food waste and to finding and implementing effective solutions is research into the knowledge and behaviour of young people, and students in particular, regarding dietary choices, eating habits, food waste and their attitudes towards food in general. This paper delves into the urgency of reducing food waste, encompassing its definition, stages in the food supply chain, and its relevance to achieving Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). The European Union's efforts and Bulgaria's initiatives provide context to the broader discourse on food waste reduction. Тhe European Commission has set out a number of policies and instruments aimed at reducing food loss and waste as part of the Circular Economy Action Plan and the Farm to Fork Strategy. In line with EU objectives, a National Programme for the Prevention and Reduction of Food Loss (2021-2026) has been developed in Bulgaria, which sets out the framework for joint action to reduce food loss and waste and for society to rethink its attitudes to food consumption and value. However, food waste problems at the consumer level in Bulgaria are understudied. The aim of the current study is to explore the personal perceptions and behaviours of Bulgarian students towards food waste when eating out. Information was collected through a structured online questionnaire. The survey was conducted during the academic year 2022/2023 among Bulgarian students of the University of National and World Economy in Sofia, Bulgaria. There were 123 participants between the ages of 18 and 35. The main findings of the study showed that over 50% of the respondents were of the opinion that the largest amount of food waste is generated when eating out. The majority of the respondents have stated that they throw away less than 5% of their food when eating out and they take the leftovers home „often“ or „sometimes“, which indicates that Bulgarian students eat most of the food they order when eating out and throw away a small portion of it. Overall, this research contributes to the understanding of food waste patterns and encourages targeted interventions to promote sustainable consumption among students and beyond. Key words: food waste, eating out, students, Bulgaria JEL codes: Q18, Q53

The article substantiates the conceptual principles of reducing food loss and food waste from the standpoint of ensuring food security and environmental sustainability. The approaches to the interpretation of the concepts of food loss and waste are summarized, the similarities and differences between them, as well as the reasons for their formation and the connection between them, are noted. The main causes of food losses and food waste, which are caused by human, technical-technological, natural-climatic, economic, market, etc., are considered. factors. It is argued that Ukraine's waging of war caused the deterioration of food security both at the local and national levels, and at the international level. The main factors that lead to the loss of agri-food in the supply chain during wartime and the decrease in its production volumes are systematized, which will negatively affect the provision of food security in the country and the formation of export potential at the level of previous years. The dynamics of losses in terms of individual types of products were analyzed and it was established that the highest losses are observed for potatoes - 18.1 %, vegetables and melons - 12.0 %, fruits and vegetables - 10.0 %, and for livestock products this indicator is not significant It was found that the greatest losses of crop products occur at the stage of growing and harvesting, the value of which varies from 3 to 12 %, as well as sales. In dairy and meat breeding, the greatest losses occur at the stage of livestock breeding, milking and primary processing of products, as well as due to the lack of a full production cycle. It is estimated that the amount of food waste in Ukraine in households is 76 kg per capita, which is almost equal to the indicators of most countries, but the values are higher in the catering sector - 28 kg and retail trade - 16 kg. It was concluded that there is a need to develop effective measures to reduce food waste and losses in order to increase the sustainability and competitiveness of agri-food supply chains. It is substantiated that the conceptual principles of the need to reduce food losses and food waste should be considered in the aspect of ensuring food security and minimizing the negative impact on the environment. Among the priority directions for solving the problem of food losses and waste, the following are highlighted: development of a comprehensive program for the preservation and restoration of agricultural production in the conditions of martial law; development and improvement of market infrastructure elements; technical and technological modernization of agricultural production, processing facilities; improvement of distribution infrastructure elements, especially transportation of live animals; creation of innovative warehouse facilities; formation of a rational consumption culture among the population; development of wholesale food markets, livestock markets, development of public-private partnerships in the implementation of projects to reduce food losses and food waste; development of effective levers of state regulation in the aspect of motivation of chain participants; development of a methodical approach to estimating the amount of food losses; formation of an information array of data, etc. Key words: food loss, food waste, supply chain, food security, environmental sustainability, martial law.