Abstract
Adequate intake of iodine is essential for proper thyroid function. Although dietary reference intakes for iodine have been established, iodine intake cannot be estimated due to the lack of data on iodine contents in foods. We aimed to determine if food group intakes can predict iodine status assessed by urinary iodine concentration (UIC) from spot urine samples of 5967 US adults in the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2007–2012. From an in-person 24-h dietary recall, all foods consumed were aggregated into 12 main food groups using the individual food code of the US Department of Agriculture (USDA); dairy products, meat/poultry, fish/seaweed, eggs, legumes/nuts/seeds, breads, other grain products, fruits, vegetables, fats/oils, sugars/sweets, and beverages. Chi-square test, Spearman correlation, and multiple linear regression analyses were conducted to investigate the predictability of food group intakes in iodine status assessed by UIC. From the multiple linear regressions, the consumption of dairy products, eggs, and breads, and iodine-containing supplement use were positively associated with UIC, whereas beverage consumption was negatively associated with UIC. Among various food group intakes, dairy product intake was the most important determinant of iodine status in both US men and women. Subpopulation groups with a high risk of iodine deficiency may need nutritional education regarding the consumption of dairy products, eggs, and breads to maintain an adequate iodine status. Efforts toward a better understanding of iodine content in each food and a continued monitoring of iodine status within US adults are both warranted.
Highlights
Iodine is a trace element, of which only a small amount is needed in the body
The lowest median urinary iodine concentration (UIC) (104.8 μg/L) was found in women who participated in National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2011-2012
Prevalence of
Summary
Iodine is a trace element, of which only a small amount is needed in the body. Adequate intake of iodine is indispensable to the synthesis of thyroid hormones, thyroxine (T4), and tri-iodothyronine (T3), which are required for growth, organ development, and utilization of nutrients by the body [1]. Severe iodine deficiency increases the risk of stillbirths and neonatal death and causes cretinism, developmental failure, delayed cognition development in childhood [2], mental retardation, hypothyroidism, and goiter in adults [3]. Health risks have been documented for severe iodine deficiencies, and as consequences of mild to moderate iodine deficiencies that are present in the US [5] and other developed countries [6]. Mild to moderate iodine deficiencies are associated with lower mental and cognitive function resulting in low IQ in children and decreased work productivity, metabolic abnormalities, thyroid dysfunction, and even goiter in adults [7,8,9,10]
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