Food and digestion of Cenozoic mammals in Europe

Chapter 11: Terrestrial vertebrates

A case of allergy to airborne, heat-labile shrimp allergens

Part I. Introduction: 1. Gut form and function D. J. Chivers and P. Langer 2. Food and digestion of Caenozoic mammals in Europe P. Langer 3. Modelling gut function C. Martinez del Rio, S. J. Cork and W. H. Karasov 4. Optimum gut structure for specified diets R. McNeill Alexander Part II. Food: 5. Foods and the digestive system C. M. Hladik and D. J. Chivers 6. Classification of foods for comparative analysis of gastro-intestinal tracts P. Langer and D. J. Chivers 7. The carnivorous herbivores R. J. Moir 8. Nutritional ecology of fruit-eating and flower-visiting birds and bats C. Martinez del Rio 9. Herbivory and niche partitioning M. R. Perrin 10. Taste discrimination and diet differentiation among New World primates B. Simmen 11. Potential hominid plant foods from woody species in semi-arid vs. sub-humid subtropical Africa C. R. Peters and E. M. O'Brien Part III. Form: 12. The form of selected regions of the gastro-intestinal tract G. Bjornhag and P. Langer 13. Categorisation of food items relevant to oral processing P. W. Lucas 14. A direct method for measurement of gross surface area of mammalian gastro-intestinal tracts M. Young Owl 15. Morphometric methods for determining surface enlargement at the microscopic level in the large intestine and their application R. L. Snipes 16. Weaning time and bypass structures in fore-stomachs of Marsupalia and Eutheria P. Langer 17. Adaptations in the large intestine allowing small animals to eat fibrous foods G. Bjornhag Part IV. Function: 18. Foraging and digestion in herbivores G. O. Batzli and I. D. Hume 19. Gut morphology, body size and digestive performance in rodents I. D. Hume 20. The integrated processing response in herbivorous small mammals G. O. Batzli, A. D. Broussard and R. J. Oliver 21. Digestive constraints on dietary scope in small and moderately-small mammals S. J. Cork 22. Effects and costs of allelochemicals for mammalian herbivores W. J. Foley and C. McArthur 23. Short-chain fatty acids as a physiological signal from gut microbes T. Sakata Part V. Synthesis and Perspectives: 24. Food, form and function D. J. Chivers, P. Langer, C. Martinez del Rio, S. J. Cork, W. H. Karasov, R. McNeill Alexander, C. M. Hladik, R. J. Moir, M. R. Perrin, B. Simmen, C. R. Peters, E. M. O'Brien, G. Bjornhag, P. W. Lucas, M. Young Owl, R. L. Snipes, G. O. Batzli, I. D. Hume, A. D. Broussard, R. J. Oliver, W. J. Foley, C. McArthur and T. Sakata.

The faunal succession of Japanese Quaternary mammals is described within the stratigraphic framework provided mainly by KAMEI, KAWAMURA and TARUNO (1988). Descriptions are given separately for Hokkaido, Honshu-Shikoku-Kyushu and the Ryukyu Islands.In Hokkaido, Pleistocene mammalian remains are too scarce to provide a detailed faunal succession, but abundant remains of Holocene age suggest that the fauna was almost identical to that of the present day. Large mammals recorded for the Late Pleistocene are therefore considered to have been extinct by the Holocene.In Honshu-Shikoku-Kyushu, the Early Pleistocene fauna is of temperate forest type, and related to those of north China. Almost all the components are, however, assigned to extinct endemic species. The Middle Pleistocene fauna is characterized by the presence of extant species. In fact, they exceed half of the components in the middle Middle Pleistocene fauna, and are still more common in the later faunas. This fauna is also dominated by temperate forest elements and endemic species. Immigration from south China in the middle Middle Pleistocene is more limited than previously thought, and only a few forms migrated from north and northeast China in the late Middle Pleistocene. The Late Pleistocene fauna is basically identical with that of the Middle Pleistocene except for the absence of several extinct species and several exotic species which still survive in other regions. Although the fauna seems to have been isolated from those of the adjacent continent in the early Late Pleistocene, immigration of large herbivores from the northern part of the continent was recognized in the late Late Pleistocene. Most of the extinct and exotic species were eliminated from the fauna between 20, 000 and 10, 000 years BP, and thus the fauna became almost identical with that of the present day by the early Holocene.In the Ryukyu Islands, Early and Middle Pleistocene faunas are almost unknown, while Late Pleistocene and Holocene ones are relatively well recorded. The Late Pleistocene fauna is of insular type, and includes several species endemic to the islands. Some of them are extinct species. From the end of the Pleistocene to the Holocene, insularity of the fauna was enhanced by the extinction of major species and by extreme reduction in habitat areas of the survivors.

In the present study, we carried out experiments on the diet of the freshwater prawn Macrobrachium equidens. We tested which type of food and which density of food is suitable for larval development. For the experiment on the type of food, eight treatments were carried out: (I) starvation, (AL) microalgae, (RO) rotifers, (AN) Artemia, (RO + AN) rotifers + Artemia, (AL + RO) microalgae + rotifers, (AL + AN) microalgae + Artemia, (AL + RO + AN) microalgae + rotifers + Artemia. For the experiment on the density of food, we used the type of food, which had resulted in a high survival rate in the previous experiment. Three treatments were carried out: 4, 8 and 16 Artemia nauplii /mL. The rate of feeding during larval development was observed. The survival, weight and percentage of juveniles of each feeding experiment were determined. We found that larvae are carnivores; however, they have requirements with respect to the type of food, because larvae completed their cycle from the zoeal to the juvenile stage only when Artemia nauplii were available. We also verified that the larvae feed mainly during the day-time, and are opportunistic with respect to the density of food offered.

Abstract. FAUNAL RECORD AND PALEOENVIRONMENTS OF THE LATE QUATERNARY, LA PAMPA PROVINCE, ARGENTINA. Fossil mammals from the Eastern sector of the Pampean Region (Argentina) provided the basis for the chronological and biostratigraphical continental scheme of the South American late Cenozoic. A new faunal assemblage from the Western area of the region (Santa Rosa, La Pampa Province) is presented along with the analysis of its sedimentary and stratigraphic context, and a paleoenvironmental reconstruction. The mammalian faunal assemblage is the largest and more diverse reported from a single locality in La Pampa province and is composed by Glyptodon clavipes Owen, Doedicurus sp. (Xenarthra, Cingulata), Megatherium americanum Cuvier, Glossotherium robustum (Owen), Scelidotherium sp. (Xenarthra, Folivora), Toxodon sp., (Notoungulata, Toxodontidae), Lama sp. (Artiodactyla, Camelidae), Equus (Amerhippus) sp. and Hippidion sp. (Perissodactyla, Equidae). The fossil bearing levels represent a fluvial-like channel environment that drained the rain water excess towards a nearby topographic depression (Laguna Don Tomás). According to the relative stratigraphic position in the sequence and the correlation with other localities of the region, the fossil bearing levels would have accumulated during the Late Pleistocene. Among taxa recovered at Sitio 1, Glyptodon clavipes, Megatherium americanum and Glossotherium robustum are characteristic species of the Bonaerian and Lujanian Stages-Ages, while Equus (Amerhippus) is an exclusive taxon of the Lujanian. Consequently, this new faunal assemblage is assignable to the Lujanian Stage-Age (Late Pleistocene-Early Holocene). Its presence in the analyzed deposits confirms the chronology proposed from the bearing levels.

The type Ferris Formation of south-central Wyoming is thick, comparatively undeformed, and relatively fossiliferous. We documented more than 100 vertebrate-bearing, stratigraphically superposed fossil localities that span roughly 3,000 ft ( c. 900 m) of continental strata of Lancian (latest Cretaceous) and Puercan (earliest Paleocene) age. Fossil mammals were recovered from 39 of the localities, 32 or 33 of which represent Puercan time. The mammalian fossils allowed a detailed biostratigraphic zonation of the Puercan section, which is thicker, by nearly an order of magnitude, than any other known of that age. Preserved in a 1,763 ft- (537 m-) thick section are mammalian assemblages that represent all three Puercan Interval-zones ( i. e. , Pu1–Pu3), originally defined elsewhere from principally non-superposed strata. The local strata underwent only minor deformation, and that occurred late in the regional Laramide orogeny, not before the late Paleocene. On the basis of mammalian faunas, we place the Lancian-Puercan boundary at approximately 2,050 ft (625 m) above the base of the type Ferris Formation; remains of dinosaurs occur to just above that level, in absence of Puercan mammals. The lowest stratigraphic occurrence of Protungulatum donnae , a placental mammal diagnostic elsewhere of the earliest Puercan, exists at the 2,075 ft (632 m) level. Taxonomic composition of palynological samples is compatible with our placement of the Lancian-Puercan boundary. Previous workers assumed that advent of locally derived clasts in the Hanna Formation could be used to distinguish its outcrops from those of the underlying Ferris Formation. However, diverse pebbles from local sources also occur in the type Ferris Formation, even within its dinosaur-bearing parts. We have been unable to determine any combination of lithologic criteria that can be used reliably in the field to distinguish between outcrops of Ferris and Hanna Formations. We summarize important variations in depositional regime within Lancian-Puercan parts of the type Ferris Formation. We provide systematic description and discussion of multituberculate and peradectian components of the mammalian fauna. All reported taxa represent new records for the Hanna Basin and southern Wyoming in general, and the faunas help fill distributional gaps between species known to the north and south of central Wyoming. At least one species of multituberculate is recognized as new. Geographic range extensions include: (1) most southerly records of Cimolodon nitidus, Alphadon lulli, Mesodma ambigua, M. hensleighi, M. sp. cf. M. garfieldensis , and Catopsalis joyneri ; and (2) most northerly records of Ptilodus sp. cf. P. tsosiensis and Taeniolabis taoensis . Within the Hanna Basin, no genera of multituberculates or peradectians from the Ferris Formation have been documented in strata both of Lancian and Puercan age; several examples of pseudoextinction, however, may exist through taxonomic artifact. Temporal range extensions include first: (1) Puercan records of Mesodma hensleighi and Ectypodus spp.; (2) records within Puercan Interval-zone Pu3 of Ptilodus sp. cf. P. tsosiensis ; and (3) record in Puercan Interval-zone Pu2 of Catopsalis joyneri . In general, the Lancian multituberculate and peradectian faunas of the type Ferris Formation are similar to, although not nearly so diverse as, those from the type Lance Formation; the lower diversity almost certainly is an artifact of paucity of specimens available for study.

The generally well developed and understood stratigraphic record associated with fossil mammals in North America is combined with independent chronological data sets that foster the development of high-resolution geochronology in nonmarine sequences. An updated chronology for all North American mammal ages (or subdivisions) is utilized to examine the tempo and mode of overland mammal immigration/emigration episodes during the Cenozoic Era. In addition to the thirty or more "background" dispersals involving only a few taxa, ten major immigration/emigration episodes are recorded during the Cenozoic Era in North America. All are important for evaluating the dispersal pattern, as well as for...

Until recently American vertebrate paleontologists, particularly students of fossil mammals, have not generally accepted the concept of a former continuous land area around the north end of the Atlantic, connecting western Europe with North America. G. G. Simpson developed biological arguments based on fossil mammals supporting the existence of a corridor (Simpson, 1953 and references cited there) topologically connecting western Europe with North America in the early Eocene, but Simpson was influenced by the stabilistic geologic rationale of the times when he located the, position of the corridor in Asia because of supposed permanence of the Atlantic oceanic barrier during all of Tertiary time. He did not take into account the epicontinental Turgai Straits sea barrier in Asia that lay athwart his corridor in the early Tertiary. The plate tectonic geophysical synthesis of the history of the North Atlantic and Arctic Oceans is in accord with the mammalian timing evidence that a former Euramerican landmass as well as a biota was severed about 49 m.y. ago and that Holarctic land dispersal since that time has been via Asia alone, becoming possible again with Europe in the midTertiary. Earlier, starting about 70 m.y. ago, a continental collision whose site is now within northeastern Siberia created land continuity between what were then Asia and North America and by the Oligocene the Turgai Straits had finally dried, giving the Holarctic corridor essentially its present configuration. Shallow epicontinental waters have on several occasions crossed Beringia, as at present. Thus the land surface of Holarctica has been rearranged substantially since 70 m.y. ago, North America as a land surface having shifted its allegiance from Europe to Asia. Recently published geological and geophysical information also suggests that, in addition to early Eocene land continuity in the Greenland-Barents Shelf area, a subaerial dispersal route crossing the volcanic Wyville Thompson Ridge from southeastern Greenland to the Faeroes and then to Great Britain and Ireland may also have been possible for a time in the early Tertiary. This latter route is the long familiar but hypothetical Thulean Bridge, now given a new lease on life by geophysical studies of hot spots. Aside from the time-honored and romantic concept of Atlantis, a rationale for a former North Atlantic land area connecting western Europe all the way to the North American mainland can be traced back at least to the 1850's. The concept reached a high level of credibility among biogeographers such as Scharff (1907, 1909, 1911) and geologists such as Arldt (1917), and the connection was usually thought of as operating up until rather late in the Cenozoic. It should be recalled that until Nansen's historic voyage in the Fram in 1893-1896 it was generally believed that the Arctic Ocean was shallow and that a significant amount of unknown land still lurked in those waters-land that might somehow have been a terrestrial dispersal route in pre-glacial times. In its extreme form, the idea of a transatlantic late Cenozoic land bridge in the north is still with us (e.g., Strauch, 1970), although the postulated locale is regarded as Iceland rather than farther poleward. On the other hand various authors, for instance Simpson (1953, 1965), Schwarzbach & Pflug (1957), and Schwarzbach (1959), have claimed that no connection between Iceland and the British Isles existed after the Eocene or that none existed at all during the whole Cenozoic Era. Still other authors have sug1 Department of Vertebrate Paleontology, The American Museum of Natural History, and Department of Geological Sciences, Columbia University. ANN. MissouRi BOT. GARD. 62: 335-353. 1975. This content downloaded from 157.55.39.203 on Thu, 20 Oct 2016 04:19:19 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms 336 ANNALS OF THE MISSOURI BOTANICAL GARDEN [VOL. (32 gested that an Eocene and earlier route was possible in the far north between Greenland and the now mostly submerged Barents Shelf. A few timid souls have hedged their bets by suggesting that both a faar northern and an Icelandic route

The cost-effectiveness of different attractants during camera trapping surveys has been seldom evaluated. To contribute in filling this knowledge gap we (1) compare the effectiveness of a suite of attractants in detecting widely distributed mammals in Europe and (2) evaluate the cost-effectiveness of these attractants, by calculating the costs associated to reach a specific monitoring objective. We conducted a large-scale field experiment across four study areas in central and northern Italy, encompassing a variety of environments, from lowland forest to alpine beech forest. We focused on comparing the following low cost and readily available attractants: sardines, peanut butter, a commercial lure and we used a camera with no attractant as control, collecting data on a suite of small to large mammals. We found that for seven of our 13 target species detectability varied with the type of attractant used. Specifically, sardines proved to be the most effective attractant for canids and the porcupine, peanut butter was most effective for mustelids but was avoided by the roe deer, whereas the commercial lure was the most effective with red deer. Through a power analysis combined with a cost function analysis we were able to show striking differences in the cost-effectiveness of the different methods, sometimes in the order of magnitude of tens of thousands of euros, which strongly emphasizes the critical importance played by the choice of whether to use an attractant or not and the type of attractant to be used.

EFFECT OF GAMMA RADIATION ON SURVIVAL OF CAMPYLOBACTERS IN VARIOUS FOOD SAMPLES

THE PLIO-HOLOCENE LARGE MAMMALS OF THE WESTERN EURASIA: MACROECOLOGICAL AND EVOLUTIONARY ANALYSES OF THE FAUNAS

The modern synthetic theory of evolution has been developed from observations and concepts derived from a wide variety of sources. Many lines of evidence have contributed to the verification of the basic fact of evolutionary change, but the most cogent direct evidence comes from the field of paleontology. Dental traits in particular have been of special importance to students of evolution and paleontology. Since teeth possess a relatively good fossil record, they have provided much-needed information about long-term evolutionary change, particularly in the mammals. In addition, the dentition of mammals is generally highly correlated with type of food and feeding habits, and is therefore, of particular significance to students of functional anatomy and systematics. Studies of the morphological variation of dental characters have been conducted for many decades by systematists but rarely have these investigations been concerned with ascertaining the primary causes of variation. An enhanced understanding of the causal components should provide a more adequate basis for interpreting variation in the teeth of both fossil and recent mammals and should serve to reduce the inferential leap now necessary from softpart neontology to hard-part paleontology. Variation in the majority of taxonomic traits is of the continuous type. Such traits may be described in terms of the several components contributing to their total phenotypic variance. Estimation of the magnitude of the variance components may be obtained from breeding experiments and

Приводятся сведения о находках в Забайкалье в отложениях плейстоцена и голоцена раковин моллюсков родов монодакна (Monodacna), перловицы (Unio), ланцеолярия (Lanceolaria), катушки (Planorbis) и амуропалудина (Amuropaludina). Их раковины морфологически близки к раковинам современных видов, обитающих в географически отдаленных от Забайкалья регионах России. Ареалы их в прошлом были значительно обширнее, чем в настоящее время. На основании ископаемых находок и современных сборов моллюсков воссоздается история существования и вымирания обсуждаемых видов в Забайкалье. Ареалы европейских видов родов монодакна, перловицы, катушки и дальневосточных видов родов ланцеолярия и амуропалудина на временном отрезке от плейстоцена до голоцена изменялись под влиянием климатических факторов в ледниковый период. При сопоставлении абсолютного возраста находок ископаемых раковин или вмещающих их отложений с периодами потеплений и похолоданий по региональной геохронологической шкале выявлены геохронологические реперы существования и вымирания обсуждаемых видов в Забайкалье. Теплолюбивые европейские виды, широко распространенные в плейстоцене, вымерли в Восточной Сибири и Забайкалье в ледниковый период, их ареалы были прерваны и ограничены основной частью в Европе. Такой же сценарий развивался и для дальневосточных стенотермных видов, вымерших в Забайкалье в холодный период голоцена. Около 2-1,5 тыс. л. н. их ареал, охватывающий весь бассейн Амура, был прерван и ограничен основной частью на Дальнем Востоке. Отмечен факт обитания в озерах-рефугиумах Забайкалья локальных популяций европейских видов обыкновенная и клиновидная перловицы (Unio pictorum и U. tumidus) и дальневосточного вида кийская амуранодонта (Amuranodonta kijaensis). Изменения, связанные с природными циклами похолоданий и потеплений в плейстоцене и голоцене, можно рассматривать как проявление климатогенной сукцессии, в ходе которой происходило вымирание стенотермных видов на региональном уровне и разрыв ареалов на глобальном уровне. The article presents information on the finds of shells of mollusks of the genera Monodacna, Unio, Lanceolaria, Planorbis, and Amuropaludina in the Pleistocene and Holocene deposits in Transbaikalia. Their shells are morphologically similar to those of modern species inhabiting regions of Russia that are geographically remote from Transbaikalia. Their ranges in the past were much more extensive than at present. The history of the existence and extinction of the species under discussion in Transbaikalia is reconstructed based on fossil finds and modern collections of mollusks. The ranges of the European species of the genera Monodacna, Unio, Planorbis, and the Far Eastern species of the genera Lanceolaria and Amuropaludina changed during the time period from the Pleistocene to the Holocene under the influence of climatic factors during the Ice Age. When comparing the absolute age of fossil shell finds or their host sediments with periods of warming and cooling on the regional geochronological scale, geochronological markers of the existence and extinction of the species under discussion in Transbaikalia were revealed. Thermophilic European species, widespread in the Pleistocene, became extinct in Eastern Siberia and Transbaikalia during the Ice Age, their ranges were interrupted and limited to the main part in Europe. The same scenario developed for the Far Eastern stenothermic species, which became extinct in Transbaikalia during the cold period of the Holocene. About 2-1,5 thousand years ago, their range, covering the entire Amur basin, was interrupted and limited to the main part in the Far East. The fact of habitation of local populations of European species of the common and wedge-shaped pearl mussel (Unio pictorum and U. tumidus) and the Far Eastern species of the Kian amuranodont (Amuranodonta kijaensis) in the refugium lakes of Transbaikalia has been noted. Changes associated with the natural cycles of cooling and warming in the Pleistocene and Holocene can be considered as a manifestation of climatogenic succession, during which the extinction of stenothermic species at the regional level and the rupture of ranges at the global level occurred.

The 18 extant members of the Tribe Phloeomyini, the “cloud rats,” constitute an endemic Philippine radiation of arboreal herbivores that range in size from ca. 18 g to 2.7 kg, most occurring in cloud forest above 1,200 m elevation. Although calibrated phylogenies indicate that the Phloeomyini is estimated to have begun diversifying within the Philippines by ca. 10–11 million years ago, no extinct fossil species have been described, severely limiting our understanding of this distinctive radiation. Our studies of fossil and subfossil small mammal assemblages from the lowland Callao Caves complex in NE Luzon, Philippines, have produced specimens of Phloeomyini that date from ca. 67,000 BP to the Late Holocene (ca. 4,000 to 2,000 BP). We identify three extinct species that we name as new members assigned to the genera Batomys, Carpomys, and Crateromys, distinguished from congeners by body size, distinctive dental and other morphological features, and occupancy of a habitat (lowland forest over limestone) that differs from the high-elevation mossy forest over volcanic soils occupied by their congeners. Batomys cagayanensis n. sp. is known only from two specimens from ca. 67,000 BP; Carpomys dakal n. sp. and Crateromys ballik n. sp. were present from ca. 67,000 BP to the Late Holocene. These add to the species richness and morphological diversity of this endemic Philippine radiation of large folivores, and show specifically that the lowland fauna of small mammals on Luzon was more diverse in the recent past than it is currently, and that Luzon recently supported five species of giant rodents (ca. 1 kg or more). All three occurred contemporaneously with Homo luzonensis, and two, the new Carpomys and Crateromys, persisted until the Late Holocene when multiple exotic mammal species, both domestic and invasive, were introduced to Luzon, and new cultural practices (such as making pottery) became evident, suggesting that modern humans played a role in their extinction.