Fluoride exposure and pediatric kidney health in dry, wet and intermediate climatic zone communities in Sri Lanka: Implications from urinary Cystatin-C, and albumin-creatinine ratio

Abstract

BackgroundHigh fluoride exposure is increasingly discussed attributing to kidney injury as a causative factor. Depending on geochemistry, differential fluoride levels in drinking water are identified in different regions in Sri Lanka. However, the levels of fluoride exposure, and associations with kidney health has not been adequately studied in Sri Lanka, particularly in pediatric communities. Hence, the present study aimed to assess fluoride exposure in selected pediatric communities in the dry, wet and intermediate climatic zones in Sri Lanka, along with an assessment of renal health using urinary Cystatin-C (uCys-C), and albumin-creatinine ratio (uACR). MethodsWe conducted a cross-sectional study with school students in selected education zones representing dry (N = 331), wet (N = 152), and intermediate (N = 292) climatic zones in Sri Lanka. Fluoride contents in urine and drinking water were assessed as measures of fluoride exposure. ResultsThe median (interquartile distance) urinary fluoride levels of participants in the dry, wet and intermediate zones were 1.63(1.04–2.85), 1.29(0.85–2.21), and 1.07(0.61–1.98) mg/gCr while the fluoride contents of drinking water samples were 1.76(1.36–2.30), 0.25(0.18–0.37), and 0.43(0.26–0.63) ppm respectively with significant differences among the three groups. Median uCys-C level (ng/mgCr) of the participants in intermediate zone [30.26(8.49–71.44)] was significantly low (p < 0.05) compared to that of the participants in dry zone [56.19(7.08–211.8)], and wet zone [66.29(30.43–125.20)]. The incidences of elevated uCys-C levels above reference intervals in participants of dry zone (47.7%), and wet zone (50.0%) were significantly high (p < 0.001) compared to the intermediate zone (26.4%). ConclusionRelatively high fluoride exposure is likely in dry and wet zone communities compared to the intermediate zone along with significantly higher incidence of uCys-C levels above reference intervals in study groups with higher fluoride exposure. However, to conclude a clear link between fluoride exposure and kidney health we need in-depth studies.