Flavor partition and fat reduction in cheese by supercritical fluid extraction: processing variables

Supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) is a green technology that has been applied on a commercial scale for more than three decades. SFE is a high-pressure extraction method in which a mixture of solutes is separated from a solid matrix by bringing the mixture into contact with a fluid in the supercritical state. A supercritical fluid has very particular and unique characteristics, which enable its use as an efficient extraction solvent. Carbon dioxide (CO2) is the most commonly used supercritical fluid and has applications in food, cosmetic, pharmaceutical, and correlated industries. Many research works have already demonstrated that SFE is a technically feasible process that may also be commercially competitive in terms of economic viability. Although SFE is commercially carried out in several countries, it is nonetheless still considered as an emerging technology. This emerging status remains associated with SFE technology because the conventional low-pressure extraction methods remain the most frequently used extraction techniques, in particular due to the comparatively low cost of investment that is required for installing a low-pressure industrial plant. The physical phenomena that occur during SFE have already been extensively investigated, and there is consensus that SFE is a complex phenomenon that involves multicomponent systems. However, various simplifications can be performed to describe SFE for the purpose of process design. Presently, one of the major challenges for researchers in this area is the proposition of practical procedures (experimental and/or calculation methods) in order to simplify the determination of some process parameters which are required for the studies of economic feasibility. This chapter presents the fundamental concepts of SFE and gives special attention to the information that must be available to conduct preliminary studies of process design and cost estimation.

Supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) has been utilized by the food industry in many applications to extract, fractionate, and recover compounds from various food matrices. However, little research has been conducted using SFE as an alternative process for producing reduced-fat cheese. Lipids in cheeses may be selectively extracted due to the nonpolar properties of supercritical carbon dioxide (SC-CO2), without leaving residual chemicals as is the case in solvent extraction. The objective of this study was to evaluate the influence on the extraction process due to cheese variety and protein breakdown by age. A Latin square design was utilized to test the extractability of lipids from Parmesan and Cheddar cheeses, aged young (9-10 months) or old (24 months). Extraction took place in a 500 mL SFE vessel using 100 g of grated cheese samples. The SFE parameters of the extraction were 350 bar, 35 degrees C, and supercritical carbon dioxide at a flow rate of 20 g/min for 55 min. Compositional analysis measured all treated samples and controls of total lipids, lipid profiling, total protein, protein/peptide analysis, moisture, ash, and pH. Cheese type was a major variable in fat extraction. The extraction in Cheddar showed an average fat reduction of 53.56% for young cheese, whereas that in old Cheddar was 47.90%. However, young Parmesan was reduced an average of 55.07%, but old Parmesan was reduced at 68.11%, measured on a dry basis. SFE extracted triglycerides and cholesterol, but did not remove phospholipids. This investigation introduces the observations of the effect of Cheddar and Parmesan varieties on SFE, offering data on the important parameters to consider in the design of SFE processes to reduce fat in cheese.

Supercritical Carbon Dioxide as Green Product for Effective Environmental Remediation

The Flavor, Volatile Acidity, and Soluble Protein of Cheddar and other Cheese

Recent flavor chemistry studies have identified flavor compounds at different concentrations in full- and low-fat Cheddar cheeses. The specific flavor contributions of these compounds in full- and low-fat cheese matrices have not been established. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the sensory response of Cheddar flavor compounds in model full-fat and 75% reduced-fat cheeses. Odor activity values (OAVs) for each compound in full- and reduced-fat cheeses were calculated. Each compound was then added to model cheeses created from 3-week-old full- and reduced-fat Cheddar cheeses. A trained sensory panel (n = 8) evaluated the sensory properties of the cheese models. The final combination of compounds was incorporated into reduced-fat cheese models, and consumers (n = 85) evaluated perceived-aged Cheddar cheese aroma. Based on OAVs and perception of the individual compounds in cheese models, 12 key flavor compounds were identified. Target ideal concentrations of specific cheese flavor compounds in 75% reduced-fat cheese were determined. According to consumers, the perceived aged Cheddar cheese aroma intensity of reduced-fat model cheese with these added compounds was not different (P > 0.05) from the perceived Cheddar cheese aroma intensity of commercial aged full-fat Cheddar cheeses. PRACTICAL APPLICATION The market for reduced-fat Cheddar cheese is increasing as consumers become more health conscious. The structure and biochemistry of reduced-fat Cheddar cheeses are altered, and flavor and texture remain a challenge. This study established the role of 23 volatile compounds using descriptive analysis of cheese model systems. The impact of key compound concentration differences and how these differences affect sensory perception of cheese flavor in full- and 75% reduced-fat Cheddar cheeses were determined. These results provide guidance for mimicking aged Cheddar cheese flavor in reduced-fat cheese.

Supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) of vegetable oils is an alternative method to organic solvent (namely hexane) and mechanical extraction. To exploit the SFE technology at industrial scale, the process has to be optimized. An effective way to perform optimization is to resort to models that are capable to describe and simulate the SFE process. Plenty of models are available in the literature concerning the SFE of vegetable oils. Modeling the process in a semi-continuous extraction column (the bed of matrix to be extracted is stationary, the supercritical fluid moves continuously through it) requires an equipment model, the column model, and a particle model accounting for mass transfer mechanisms. Column models are quite established. Thus, to achieve a satisfactory description of the process, having a very effective particle model seems the key-point. In this work the SFE kinetics of seed oil (namely: grape seed oil) was modeled using different particle models: the broken and intact cells (BIC) and the shrinking core (SC) models, and the results were compared with literature values obtained utilizing the combined BIC-SC model. The three models not only allowed to fit satisfactorily the experimental data, but also resemble the real physical structure of the vegetable matrix and the actual elementary steps (mass transfer phenomena) which are expected to occur at the micro- scale level. As a whole, the present analysis provides an insight of interest for the audience concerned with modeling the SFE process.

Supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) with CO2 is a valuable alternative technique in which organic solvents are used in a series of laboratories and different industrial processes. In early research, water was used as the common solvent for the extraction process, but recently CO2 has received much attention as a supercritical fluid at different industrial levels. The industry zones, especially the rubber industries, prefer to use SFE with CO2 because this combination offers many advantages such as sample recovery, maintenance of purity factor, high selectivity in products, and a very short processing time, around 10–60 min. SFE with CO2 is very effective for reducing product contamination and improving environmental safety. CO2 as a solvent when used widely in various industrial processes and with SFE does not produce any emissions harmful to the environment. SFE technologies are used in different industrial applications that have shown substantial development in recent years. In this chapter, the role of SFE in rubber industries, and the importance of the rubber industry in Malaysia, with potential SFE applications, are summarized as possible future directions in research, especially for new investigators working in this area.

Introduction to Supercritical Fluids and Their Applications, Anthony A. Clifford and John R. Williams. Supercritical Fluid Extraction of Caffeine from Instant Coffee, John R. Dean, Ben Liu, and Edwin Ludkin. Supercritical Fluid Extraction of Nitrosamines from Cured Meats, John W. Pensabene and Walter Fiddler. Supercritical Fluid Extraction of Melengestrol Acetate from Bovine Fat Tissue, Robert J. Maxwell, Owen W. Parks, Roxanne J. Shadwell, Alan R. Lightfield, Carolyn Henry, and Brenda S. Fuerst. Supercritical Fluid Extraction of Polychlorinated Biphenyls from Fish Tissue, Michael O. Gaylor and Robert C. Hale. Isolation of Polynuclear Aromatic Hydrocarbons from Fish Products by Supercritical Fluid Extraction, Eila P. Jarvenpaa and Rainer Huopalahti. Supercritical Fluid Extraction of Mycotoxins from Feeds, Rainer Huopalahti and Eila P. Jarvenpaa. Supercritical Fluid Extraction of Pigments from Seeds of Eschscholtzia californica Cham, Maria L. Colombo and Andrea Mossa. Supercritical Fluid Extraction of Flumetralin from Tobacco Samples, Fernando M. Lancas, Mario S. Galhiane, and Sandra R. Rissato. Supercritical Fluid Extraction and High Performance Liquid Chromatography Determination of Carbendazim in Bee Larvae, Jose L. Bernal, Juan J. Jimenez, and Maria T. Martin. Supercritical Fluid Extraction Coupled with Enzyme Immunoassay Analysis of Soil Herbicides, G. Kim Stearman. The Supercritical Fluid Extraction of Drugs of Abuse from Human Hair, Pascal Kintz and Christian Staub. Application of Direct Aqueous Supercritical Fluid Extraction for the Dynamic Recovery of Testosterone Liberated from the Enzymatic Hydrolysis of Testosterone-b-d-Glucuronide, Edward D. Ramsey, Brian Minty, and Anthony T. Rees. Analysis of Anabolic Drugs by Direct Aqueous Supercritical Fluid Extraction Coupled On-Line with High-Performance Liquid Chromatography, Edward D. Ramsey, Brian Minty, and Anthony T. Rees. Detection of Beta-Blockers in Urine and Serum by Solid-PhaseExtraction-Supercritical Fluid Extraction and Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry, Kari Hartonen and Marja-Liisa Riekkola. On-Line SFE-SFC for the Analysis of Fat-Soluble Vitamins and Other Lipids from Water Matrices, Francisco J. Senorans and Karin E. Markides. Determination of Artemisinin in Artemisia annua L. by Off-Line Supercritical Fluid Extraction and Supercritical Fluid Chromatography Coupled to an Evaporative Light-Scattering Detector, Marcel Kohler, Werner Haerdi, Philippe Christen, and Jean-Luc Veuthey. Analysis of Cannabis by Supercritical Fluid Chromatography with Ultraviolet Detection, Michael D. Cole. Direct Chiral Resolution of Optical Isomers of Diltiazem Hydrochloride by Packed Column Supercritical Fluid Chromatography, Koji Yaku, Keiichi Aoe, Noriyuki Nishimura, Tadashi Sato, and Fujio Morishita. Determination of Salbutamol Sulfate and Its Impurities in Pharmaceuticals by Supercritical Fluid Chromatography, Maria J. del Nozal, Laura Toribio, Jose L. Bernal, and Maria L. Serna. Packed Column Supercritical Fluid Chromatographic Determination of Acetaminophen, Propyphenazone, and Caffeine in Pharmaceutical Dosage Forms, Urmila J. Dhorda, Viddesh R. Bari, and M. Sundaresan. Analysis of Shark Liver Oil by Thin-Layer and Supercritical Fluid Chromatography, Christina Borch-Jensen, Magnus Magnussen, and Jorgen Mollerup. Enzymatically Catalyzed Transesterifications in Supercritical Carbon Dioxide, Rolf Marr, Harald Michor, Thomas Gamse, and Helmut Schwab. Transesterification Reactions Catalyzed by Subtilisin Carlsberg Suspended in Supercritical Carbon Dioxide and in Supercritical Ethane, Teresa Correa de Sampaio and Susana Barreiros. Enzymatic Synthesis of Peptide in Water-Miscible Organic Solvent/Supercritical Carbon Dioxide, Hidetaka Noritomi. Micronization of a Polysaccharide by a Supercritical Antisolvent Technique, Alberto Bertucco and Paolo Pallado. Rapid Expansion of Supercritical Solutions Technology: Production of Fine Particles of Steroid

The quality of camellia seed oil (CSO) varies with the oil extraction methods. In the present work, the oil yield, physicochemical properties, bioactive compounds, fatty acid composition, and Fourier transform infrared spectra of CSOs prepared by supercritical fluid, aqueous, pressing, and solvent extraction were explored systematically. Additionally, the microstructure of camellia seed cake after oil extraction was observed by scanning electron microscopy. Results showed that supercritical fluid extraction had the highest oil yield (92.42%), and the extracted oil was also superior to the other methods in the contents of polyphenol, β-sitosterol, and squalene, which were 89.34, 3173.23, and 6.20 mg/kg, respectively. Moreover, CSO extracted by supercritical fluid extraction had lower peroxide value and better colour indexes. In terms of fatty acid composition, CSOs extracted by supercritical fluid, pressing, and solvent extraction were similar, while CSO extracted by aqueous extraction had higher saturated fatty acid contents and lower unsaturated fatty acid contents than the other samples. Fourier transform infrared spectra analysis showed that the extraction methods had no significant effect on the chemical functional groups of CSOs. Scanning electron microscopy revealed that supercritical fluid extraction and solvent extraction could more effectively promote the release of oil from camellia seeds. In general, the quality of CSOs extracted by different methods had significant differences, and supercritical fluid extraction could be a promising extraction method for CSO.

Impact of fat reduction on flavor and flavor chemistry of Cheddar cheeses

Supercritical fluid extraction of Zingiber officinale Roscoe has been carried out at a pressure of 16 MPa, with temperatures between 20-40 °C, during extraction time of 6 hours and the flow rate of CO2 fluid 5.5 ml/min. The result of supercritical method was compared with the extraction maceration using a mixture of water and ethanol (70% v/v) for 24 hours. The main content in ginger that has a main role as an antioxidant is a gingerol compound that can help neutralize the damaging effects caused by free radicals in the body, as anti-coagulant, and inhibit the occurrence of blood clots. This study aims to determine the effect of temperature on chemical components contained in rough extract of Zingiber officinale Roscoe and its antioxidant activity, total phenol and total flavonoid content. To determine the chemical components contained in the crude extract of Zingiber officinale Roscoe extracted by supercritical fluid and maceration extraction, GC-MS analysis was performed. Meanwhile, the antioxidant activity of the extract was evaluated based on a 2.2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) free radical damping method. The results of the analysis show that the result of ginger extract by using the supercritical CO2 extraction method has high antioxidant activity than by using maceration method. The highest total phenol content and total flavonoids were obtained on ginger extraction using supercritical CO2 fluid extraction, indicating that phenol and flavonoid compounds contribute to antioxidant activity. Chromatographic analysis showed that the chemical profile of ginger extract containing oxygenated monoterpenes, monoterpene hydrocarbons, sesquiterpene hydrocarbons, oxygenated monoterpene gingerol and esters. In supercritical fluid extraction, the compounds that can be identified at a temperature of 20-40 °C contain 27 compounds, and 11 compounds from the result of maceration extract. The main component of Zingiber officinale Roscoe extracted using supercritical fluid at a temperature of 40 °C is Hexanal (6.04%), Butan-2-one, 4-(3-hydroxy-2-methoxyphenyl) (27.95%), [6]-Paradol (0.73%), Gingerol (8.22%), Bis (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (1.62%), α-Citral (12.14%) and α-zingiberene (2.90%). The main component extracts of Zingiber officinale Roscoe by maceration is Hexanal (10.71%), Decanal (3.74%), Butan-2-one, 4-(3-hydroxy-2-methoxyphenyl) (38.33%), Gingerol (4.56%) and Zingiberene (0.99).

Supercritical carbon dioxide fluid extraction of Hibiscus cannabinus L. seed oil: A potential solvent-free and high antioxidative edible oil

In the present study, fatty acids and essential oils of the flower of borage (Borago officinalis L.) were obtained by supercritical carbon dioxide fluid extraction under different conditions. The extracts obtained were compared to oils of borage flower oil isolated by hydrodistillation. The obtained oils were analyzed by gas chromatography mass spectrometry. The compounds were identified according to their retention indices and mass spectra. The experimental parameters of supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) were optimized using a central composite design after a full factorial experimental design. Extraction yields based on SFE varied in the range of 0.02% to 1.96% (w/w), and the oil yield based on the hydrodistillation was 0.05% (v/w). The optimum conditions of SFE were obtained at a pressure of 350 atm, a temperature of 65 °C, a methanol modifier volume of 100 μL, and static and dynamic extraction time of 10 min. Main components of the extracts under optimum SFE conditions were palmitic acid, linoleic acid, γ-linolenic acid, and oleic acid. The results indicated that by using the suitable extraction conditions, SFE is more effective than the conventional hydrodistillation method in the extraction of fatty acids and the preservation of its quality. SFE is a good technique for the extraction of oils from plants. The extraction yields by SFE are more than the conventional method. SFE is used on a large scale for production of essential oils and pharmaceutical products from plants.

The supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) technology was firstly documented on 1822. In this review paper, the authors contemplated the inhibiting factors that resulted in limited industrial application and analysis using SFE. The driving trend nowadays is to apply what have been discovered almost 200 years ago is in an escalating fashion. The major application of the supercritical state of a common gas (carbon dioxide) is an extremely important technology, since at the critical pressure and temperature carbon dioxide is not a solid, not a liquid neither a gas and it has a no surface tension, which qualifies to be an extremely good ‘non polar solvent’ and therefore applicable for extraction of essential oils, caffeine and several other applications. The major advantages on the SFE are over the lower operating energy cost and the extracted compound remains intact as there is not thermal decomposition and the final concentrate is free of any residual processing solvent due to carbon dioxide’s natural tendency being a gas which however, is volatile in ambient temperature and pressure. The process of purification does not require any distillation to purify the extracted compound, just the pressure is released and the carbon dioxide as a solvent will leave the concentrate liquid at the bottom of the vessel, as a gas, and will not have any binding or forming azeotrope mixture that are difficult to separate to high purity. The supercritical condition of a gas or liquid is not fully being exploited and there is a great opportunity for more industrial application as to be elaborated in this paper.

The development and validation of an analytical method to determine the concentration of chlorothalonil from cranberry bog soil using supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) are reported. A self-built supercritical fluid extractor using CO(2) as the supercritical fluid (SCF) was used. The recovery of chlorothalonil was optimized by varying extraction temperature, pressure, time (static and dynamic), organic modifiers, and SCF flow rate. This method was then compared to a Soxhlet extraction procedure. SFE had more consistent performance than the Soxhlet extraction method for the recovery of chlorothalonil from both fortified bog soils and field samples. SFE provided cleaner extracts, had shorter extraction times, and used less organic solvent than the Soxhlet extraction method. This result is consistent with other SFE methods for determining pesticides from various environmental matrices. Thus, SFE is a preferred method for the extraction of chlorothalonil from cranberry bog soil.