Fixed-ratio schedules increase generalized self-control: Preference for large rewards despite high effort or punishment.

Abstract

Three experiments investigated the effects of fixed-ratio reinforcement on generalized self-control involving high effort and punishment. In Experiment 1, rats received food in a runway for the completion of each round trip (continuous-reinforcement group) or every fifth round trip (fixedratio group). Control rats received food at the same temporal intervals as these groups but without any instrumental requirement. When all rats were next given a series of choices between a large food reward requiring high lever force versus a small reward requiring low lever force, the fixed-ratio rats showed the greatest self-control. In Experiments 2 and 3, rats were rewarded on a continuous or fixed-ratio schedule followed by choice between a large food reward accompanied by intermittent shock versus a small or absent food reward without shock. The fixed-ratio rats again showed the greatest self-control. Self-control refers to an individual's decision to undergo the increased costs that may be necessary to achieve the larger of alternative goals. In the natural environment, self-control may involve a required long delay of reinforcement (Mischel, 1974), high effort (Eisenberger, Mitchell, & Masterson, 1985; Mischel, 1974), or punishment (Dollard & Miller, 1950). Most research on self-control involves delay, the choice between the early receipt of a small reinforcer versus the deferred delivery of a large reinforcer (Ainslie, 1974, 1975; Logue, 1988; Navarick & Fantino, 1976; Rachlin, 1974, 1976; Rachfin & Green, 1972). A variety of findings suggest that self-control involving delay is hindered by the precipitous decrease of the value of reinforcers with initial delay, there being a slower decline with further delay (Aiuslie, 1974; Ainslie & Herrnstein, 1981; Green, Fisher, Perlow, & Sherman, 1981; Green & Snyderman, 1980; Navarick & Fantino, 1976; Rachlin & Green, 1972). Research using pigeons, rats, and children indicates that the effects of reinforcement delay depend on experience, with the repeated receipt of long delays acting to increase subsequent self-control in both familiar and novel contexts (Eisenberger & Adornetto, 1986; Eisenberger & Masterson, 1986; Eisenberger, Masterson, & Lowman, 1982; Logue & Mazur, 1981; Logue, Rodriguez, Pena-Correal, & Mauro, 1984; Mazur & Logne, 1978). The present research investigates the possibility that experience with rewarded high effort might produce similar generalized effects on self-control involving required effort and punishment. Adding a response requirement to delay was found to lessen pigeons choice of a delayed large reward (Grossbard & Mazur, 1986), indicating that required high effort may reduce selfcontrol. Research on the generalized effects of rewarded high effort suggests that effort training might increase self-control involving effort. Various findings suggest that required high effort with one or more behaviors raises the effort subse