Abstract
Locating wolf (Canis lupus) homesites is valuable for understanding the foraging behavior, population dynamics, and reproductive ecology of wolves during summer. During this period wolf pack members (adults and pups) readily respond to simulated wolf howls (i.e., howl surveys), which allows researchers to estimate the location of the homesite via triangulation. Confirming the actual locations of homesites via ground truthing is labor intensive because of the error surrounding estimated locations. Our objectives were (1) to quantify observer error during howl surveys and compare amongst experience levels, (2) provide a simple method for locating homesites in the field by incorporating observer error, and (3) further document the value of this method for monitoring wolf packs throughout the summer. We located 17 homesites by howl surveys during 2015–2017 in the Greater Voyageurs Ecosystem, Minnesota, USA. Of 62 bearings taken by observers during howl surveys, bearings erred by an average of 7.6° ± 6.3° (SD). There was no difference in observer error between novice and experienced observers. A simple way to increase efficiency when searching for homesites is to search concentric areas (bands) based on estimated observer error, specifically by: (1) adding ±10° error bands around howl survey bearings when ≥3 bearings can be obtained, (2) ±10° and ±20° error bands when 2 bearings are obtained, and (3) ±10° and ±26° error bands when 1 bearing is obtained. By incorporating observer error and understanding how frequently and how far wolves move homesites, it is possible to monitor wolf packs and confirm most, if not all, homesites used by a pack from at least June until August without having a collared individual in a pack.
Highlights
Gray wolves (Canis lupus) are elusive predators that are challenging to study during the snow-free season, especially in densely forested habitats with limited visibility (Blanco & Cortes, 2012)
There was no significant difference in mean error between novice (7.9◦ ± 5.1◦ [SD]) or experienced observers (7.6◦ ± 2.0◦; P = 0.93) so we pooled observer data to compare how observer error changed in relation to distance from homesites
We suggest searching the triangulated area or search polygon first as many homesites will likely be in this area and if the homesite cannot be found, expanding the search to the error polygon
Summary
Gray wolves (Canis lupus) are elusive predators that are challenging to study during the snow-free season, especially in densely forested habitats with limited visibility (Blanco & Cortes, 2012). In late winter to late spring (∼ late March–early May), depending on latitude, breeding female wolves will localize at a natal den and produce a litter of pups. Wolves keep pups in dens initially but eventually transition to using rendezvous sites—which act as above-ground den sites for the pups—by late spring or early summer once pups are ∼5–6 weeks old (Fuller, 1989; Mills, Patterson & Murray, 2008). During the spring and summer, these homesites (i.e., den and rendezvous sites) become the focal point of wolf pack activity. By late summer or early fall, the pack stops using homesites as the pups are almost full grown and capable of traveling nomadically around their territory with other pack members (Mills, Patterson & Murray, 2008)
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