Female Reproductive Strategies and Competition in Apes: An Introduction

Abstract

While a large number of researchers have addressed dominance and competitive relationships among male apes and the use of alternative mating tactics by males, there is a relative dearth of empirical data on the behavioral strategies of their female counterparts. In the literature, female apes are characterized as creatures that spend the majority of their time quietly foraging, often alone. They rarely engage socially, except with their own offspring, but periodically their lives are turned upside down by the volatile behavior of sexually-excited, aggressive males. In fact, much of the time, this is what we observe as field researchers. Yet, various factors such as infanticide, costly reproduction, resource competition and ecological variability are just as likely, if not more so, to influence the evolution of complex behavioral strategies in apes as in other primate species. So, why is our understanding of female ape behavioral strategies so limited? We do not believe that females have been merely overlooked. Valuable early work with wild apes (Goodall 1967; Tutin 1979; Pusey 1980; Galdikas 1981; Watts 1994) reflects considerable research effort and significant insights into the lives of female apes. However, behavior such as social competition for rank and resources is less frequent and obvious than it is in male conspecifics or females of many other primate taxa. Male-male relationships or male-female bonds often dominate the social landscape. Females rely on males for various forms of defense, yet larger, aggressive males place constraints on the implementation of female strategies. The long lifespans and slow reproduction of apes have impeded our understanding of ape