Female Circumcision: A Critical Appraisal

Abstract

The introductory section of this article on female genital mutilation (FGM) briefly describes the historical and geographic extent of FGM and the main arguments supporting and rejecting it. The second section describes the four basic types of FGM as well as the conditions under which it occurs and takes a closer look at its origins. The third section examines the rationales presented for continuing FGM including achieving sexual control over females religious dictates reproductive myths and tradition. The fourth section counters these arguments by relaying the effects of FGM on health (immediate and short-term complications long-term complications and psychological trauma) and on female sexuality by debunking attempts to assign religious significance to the practice and by exposing the arguments used to support the practice as myths arising from misinformation rather than reality. The fifth section reviews the occurrence of FGM in Western culture and the sixth section considers arguments that pit claims of cultural self-determination against human rights. The seventh section makes a distinction between voluntary and involuntary participation in an act of cultural self-determination and the eighth section argues for the universal applicability of human rights principles. The article concludes with a review of measures against FGM including legislation religious education health education and consideration of the example of Chinese foot-binding. It considers the prospects for change arising from international efforts health education the influence of role models legislation and a multidisciplinary approach.