Farm-scale greenhouse gas balances, hotspots and uncertainties in smallholder crop-livestock systems in Central Kenya

BackgroundFinland’s national Climate Act contains a target for carbon neutrality by 2035. Achieving this target not only depends on the effective implementation of emission reductions, but to a large part on the forest carbon sink. A recent publication of the Government’s analysis, assessment, and research activities highlights a potential disparity in forest land greenhouse gas (GHG) balance estimates by the ex-ante scenario model used in the National Energy and Climate Plan (NECP), and the ex-post GHG inventory methodology used for creating an official record of emissions and removals. Better methodological compatibility is needed to answer a key question: How large will the forest carbon sink be in different scenarios? This study is a first attempt to show the usefulness of applying the GHG inventory calculation approach to predict the forest carbon sink.ResultsIn this study, we introduce a tool that can be used to estimate the GHG balance for forest land, what we call a “synthetic inventory”, and validate it by comparing outputs against historical data reported in Finland’s GHG inventory. Second, we use it to predict GHG balances in year leading up to 2035 at various roundwood and forest residue harvest rates. The tool can replicate forest GHG balances for forest land with an average annual error of 1.0 Mt CO2, representing 4% of the average annual forest carbon sink. We estimate the forest GHG balance in 2035 to be around 3, -15, -32 Mt CO2eq at levels of total annual drain 92, 80, 70 Mm3 respectively.ConclusionsAccording to our calculations the forest land net GHG balance in 2035 is approximately 12 Mt CO2eq higher than what is presented in Finland’s NECP. Conceptual differences between how GHGI methodologies and scenario models estimate living biomass gains and losses contribute to this outcome, in addition to uncertainties associated with both approaches. The tool presented here shows agreement with the National Inventory Report 2023 approach for forest land, and it can be quickly updated to fit new data.Supplementary InformationThe online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s13021-025-00307-2.

Large areas of peatlands have been drained for agricultural and forestry purposes due to human activities. This drainage disrupts the natural hydrology of peatlands, leading to increased peat decomposition and turning these ecosystems into significant sources of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Since the 1930s, extensive peatland areas in northern Norway have been drained and converted to agricultural land. To mitigate GHG emissions while maintaining biomass production, various management practices, including rewetting, are being promoted for these peatlands. Nevertheless, the impact of these mitigation measures on the peatland GHG balance remains largely unexplored.We investigated grass productivity and the GHG balance in response to peatland cultivation under varying fertilization and hydrological treatments at a site in northern Norway. GHG fluxes (CO₂, CH₄, and N₂O) were measured using 30 automatic chambers at sub-daily intervals during the growing seasons of 2022-2024.High water levels inhibited CO₂ emissions by suppressing ecosystem respiration, converting the ecosystem from a substantial CO₂ source to a sink or neutral state. Conversely, high water levels enhanced CH₄ emissions, while low water level plots remained CH₄ neutral. Sporadic N₂O emissions were observed to be higher under the more intensive fertilization regimen. Our results further highlight the critical role of harvest in determining the overall GHG and carbon balance in the ecosystem. This study has significant implications for guiding sustainable peatland management in Arctic regions.

The greenhouse gas (GHG) balance of northern peatlands is being influenced by the combined effects of rapid permafrost thaw and increasing frequency and severity of droughts. Our soil chamber flux measurements revealed that thermokarst fens in the discontinuous permafrost zone of boreal western Canada (Lutose, Alberta) acted as stronger net sources of carbon dioxide (CO2) and consistently emitted more methane (CH4) than thermokarst bogs during two extreme-drought years. Peatlands in the discontinuous permafrost zone store large amounts of soil carbon, but thawing permafrost results in changes to hydrology and vegetation, which have the potential to substantially impact their greenhouse gas balance. As permafrost thaws, thermokarst bogs and fens develop and expand, further modifying GHG dynamics. Although thermokarst fens account for approximately 30% of peatlands in the discontinuous zone, they have received little attention, and there is limited understanding of how the GHG balance varies along the trophic gradient from poor fens to extreme-rich fens.This study explored the spatial and temporal variability of greenhouse gas fluxes across four sites, including a thermokarst bog, poor fen, rich fen, and an extreme-rich fen. Trophic status of each site was classified based on pH, electrical conductivity (EC), vegetation, and concentrations of magnesium (Mg) and calcium (Ca). Fluxes were measured over two growing seasons and one winter (June 2023 to October 2024). Controls on greenhouse gas fluxes were explored using data on vegetation composition, water chemistry, hydrology, and climatic conditions. Our analysis showed that CH4 emissions generally increased along the trophic gradient, with the exception of the extreme-rich fen, where high sulfate concentrations suppressed emissions. Non-growing season CH4 emissions were also a significant contributor to annual emissions across all sites.Overall, our findings indicate that trophic status plays an important role in determining the greenhouse gas balance of thermokarst bogs and fens following permafrost thaw. Understanding the drivers of the carbon dioxide balance and methane emissions in these ecosystems during extreme drought years is essential for refining models of peatland carbon dynamics and predicting their future role in the global carbon cycle as climate change continues.

The effects of conversion from staple rice to forage rice on carbon and greenhouse gas (GHG) balances in a paddy field were evaluated. A staple rice plot without the application of livestock manure compost (LMC, S − M plot) and forage rice plots with and without the application of LMC, derived mainly from cattle (2 kg−FW m−2, F + M and F − M plots, respectively), were established. CH4 and N2O fluxes and CO2 flux from a bare soil plot for organic matter decomposition (OMD) were measured. The carbon budget was calculated by subtracting the OMD, CH4 emission, and harvested grain and straw (forage rice only) from the net primary production and LMC. The net GHG balance was calculated by integrating them as CO2 equivalents. There were no significant differences in GHG flux among the plots. Compared to the carbon loss in the S − M plot, the loss increased by harvesting straw and was mitigated by LMC application. The net GHG emission in the F + M plot was significantly lower than that in other plots (1.78 and 2.63−2.77 kg CO2-eq m−2 year−1, respectively). There is a possibility that GHG emissions could be suppressed by forage rice cultivation with the application of LMC.

The global carbon neutrality challenge places a spotlight on forests as carbon sinks. However, greenhouse gas (GHG) balances of wood for material and energy use often reveal GHG emission savings in comparison with a non-wood reference. Is it thus better to increase wood production and use, or to conserve and expand the carbon stock in forests? GHG balances of wood products mostly ignore the dynamics of carbon storage in forests, which can be expressed as the carbon storage balance in forests (CSBF). For Germany, a CSBF of 0.25 to 1.15 t CO2-eq. m−3 wood can be assumed. When the CSBF is integrated into the GHG balance, GHG mitigation substantially deteriorates and wood products may even turn into a GHG source, e.g., in the case of energy wood. In such cases, building up forest carbon stocks would be the better option. We conclude that it is vital to include the CSBF in GHG balances of wood products to assess the impacts of wood extraction from forests. Only then can GHG balances provide political decision makers and stakeholders in the wood sector with a complete picture of GHG emissions.

Reductive soil disinfestation (RSD) is proposed as a pre-plant, non-chemical soil disinfestation technique to control several soilborne phytosanitary issues. However, limited information is available on the evaluation of greenhouse gas (GHG) balance and soil quality during the soil remediation process as affected by RSD method. A 44-day field experiment including four different treatments was conducted to investigate the effects of conventional RSD and field-aged biochar-amended RSD on GHG balance and soil quality in a degraded vegetable field. Results showed that the conventional RSD application can significantly decrease the soil nitrate (NO3-) concentrations and electrical conductivity (EC) and oxidation-reduction potential (Eh) by 51.4-67.3%, 5.3-23.6%, and 10.9-15.1%, respectively, while significantly increase soil pH and cation exchange capacity (CEC) by 0.37-0.42units and 7.8-32.2%, respectively, in relation to the control (CK). Compared with the conventional RSD treatment, aged biochar-amended RSD significantly reduced soil NO3- concentrations, EC and Eh. No significant differences on CH4 emissions were observed among all the treatments during the experimental period. However, the conventional RSD application significantly increased the cumulative nitrous oxide (N2O) and carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions by 66.2-124.7% and 64.3-130.0%, respectively, and thus resulted in a significant GHG balance of 64.1-130.1% in relation to the CK. On the contrary, although resulted in more N2O emissions compared with the conventional RSD treatment, aged biochar-amended RSD significantly reduced the cumulative CO2 emissions and thus had an overall decrease in GHG balance by 20.7-28.7%. Therefore, aged biochar-amended RSD can simultaneously achieve lower GHG balance and better improvement of soil quality in degraded vegetable field, and thus can be utilized as an effective technology for soil remediation in intensive vegetable production.

Abstract. This study investigated differences in the magnitude and partitioning of the carbon (C) and greenhouse gas (GHG) balances in an age sequence of four white pine (Pinus strobus L.) afforestation stands (7, 20, 35 and 70 years old as of 2009) in southern Ontario, Canada. The 4-year (2004–2008) mean annual carbon dioxide (CO2) exchanges, based on biometric and eddy covariance data, were combined with the 2-year means of static chamber measurements of methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O) fluxes (2006–2007) and dissolved organic carbon (DOC) export below 1 m soil depth (2004–2005). The total ecosystem C pool increased with age from 46 to 197 t C ha−1 across the four stands. Rates of organic matter cycling (i.e. litterfall and decomposition) were similar among the three older stands. In contrast, considerable differences related to stand age and site quality were observed in the magnitude and partitioning of individual CO2 fluxes, showing a peak in production and respiration rates in the middle-age (20-year-old) stand growing on fertile post-agricultural soil. The DOC export accounted for 10% of net ecosystem production (NEP) at the 7-year-old stand but <2% at the three older stands. The GHG balance from the combined exchanges of CO2, CH4 and N2O was 2.6, 21.6, 13.5 and 4.8 t CO2 equivalent ha−1 year−1 for the 7-, 20-, 35- and 70-year-old stands, respectively. The maximum annual contribution from the combined exchanges of CH4 and N2O to the GHG balance was 13 and 8% in the 7- and 70-year-old stands, respectively, but <1% in the two highly productive middle-age (20- and 35-year-old) stands. Averaged over the entire age sequence, the CO2 exchange was the main driver of the GHG balance in these forests. The cumulative CO2 sequestration over the 70 years was estimated at 129 t C and 297 t C ha−1 year−1 for stands growing on low- and high-productivity sites, respectively. This study highlights the importance of accounting for age and site quality effects on forest C and GHG balances. It further demonstrates a large potential for net C sequestration and climate benefits gained through afforestation of marginal agricultural and fallow lands in temperate regions.

As proposed by United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)-Society for Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry (SETAC) Life Cycle Initiative (Mila i Canals et al., Int J Life Cycle Assess 18:1265–1277, 2007 and Koellner et al., Int J Life Cycle Assess 18:1188–1202, 2013), the impacts of land occupation should be studied in comparison to a baseline. Regardless of these guidelines, a land use baseline is often ignored in agro-bioenergy life cycle assessment (LCA) studies. This paper tests the appropriateness and significance of applying natural regeneration as a land use baseline for assessing the greenhouse gas (GHG) balances of agro-bioenergy in Finland. In the land use baseline applied, the land is assumed to be left to regenerate toward its natural state, which, in Finland, would most probably be some sort of forest. The foregone carbon stock of the natural regeneration baseline was estimated based on the literature. The GHG balances were studied by comparing the cumulative warming impacts of the dynamic biomass carbon cycle of the agro-bioenergy production system and the defined baseline over a given time horizon varying from 0 to 100 years. The significance of the results is illustrated by comparing them to other GHG emissions related to bioenergy. The results depend significantly on the agro-bioenergy yields and the carbon sequestration rate assumed in the natural regeneration baseline scenario. The GHG balances may be of the same magnitude as GHG emissions due to indirect land use changes resulting from market-mediated impacts, life cycle emissions of fossil fuels, and relative reduction in carbon stocks due to forest harvesting for bioenergy. Ignoring a dynamic land use baseline results in misleading conclusions on the GHG balances of land occupation, including agro-bioenergy, due to ignorance of foregone carbon sequestration. Thus, the interpretation of the results and conclusions provided in the vast number of agro-bioenergy LCA studies relying on biomass carbon neutrality should be reassessed. Besides bioenergy, the issue of land use baseline is relevant for any provision service function of land occupation. The foregone carbon sequestration is, however, highly uncertain and thus speculative.

Tree species influence the soil through stemflow and throughfall water, leaf litter and the root system. Little is known about the effects of tree roots on the C and N dynamics of the soil and the gas exchange with the atmosphere. In the present study, the effects of European beech (<i>Fagus sylvatica</i>) and Common ash (<i>Fraxinus excelsior</i> L.) saplings, as important European broad-leaved tree species, on C and N fluxes in the soil of a species-rich temperate forest were investigated under constant climatic conditions. The main objective was to identify root-induced changes in the greenhouse gas fluxes of CO₂, CH₄, and N₂O between soil and atmosphere. A stepwise experimental approach was used to extend the knowledge about rhizosphere effects on soil biogeochemistry. In the first step, the effects of simple C and N alteration by KNO₃ (equivalent to 200 kg N ha^-1 yr^-1) and glucose addition (equivalent to 9419 kg C kg ha^-1 yr^-1) on the fluxes of CO₂, CH₄, and N₂O were investigated for a basic understanding of the C and N dynamics in the incubated forest soil (Chapters 2 and 3). In the next step, the changes due to C and N alteration were compared with the putatively complex effects of ash roots on CO₂ and N₂O emissions in soil columns (Chapter 4). Finally, species-specific effects of the roots of beech and ash saplings on the C and N cycling of the soil were analysed in soil columns and novel double-split-root rhizotrons (Chapters 4, 5, and 6). The experimental investigation of the effects of NO₃^- and glucose addition on the greenhouse gas exchange (Chapter 2) revealed a large reduction in net CH₄ uptake due to increased N availability and saturating doses of C (reductions up to 86% and 83%, respectively). Moreover, addition of NO₃^- and glucose increased the N₂O emissions by factors of 8 and 39, respectively, whereas the CO₂ efflux remained constant after N addition and increased dramatically up to 11-fold after C addition (Chapter 3). A synergistic effect of C and N addition on all three investigated gas fluxes could be shown. The results of the simple C and N addition experiments suggest that the effect of the large C addition on all three investigated greenhouse gases, including the measured N emissions, was larger than the effect of elevated N availability, which might be important under a variable climate. The comparison of the effects of N addition and the presence of ash roots on CO₂ and N₂O emissions showed that the ash roots greatly reduced the N₂O emissions by up to 98%, whereas N addition increased the N₂O emissions just by 54% (Chapter 4). These results indicate that the effect of ash saplings on N₂O might not be exclusively explained by the N uptake of the roots, and that plant species effects of the rhizosphere changes should achieve a higher attention in future studies on the greenhouse gas balance of forest soils. As in the soil columns, the rhizotron experiment showed a large reduction of N₂O emissions by ash roots (Chapter 5). In contrast, the reduction of N₂O release in presence of beech saplings was only slight or not visible in the rhizotrons and the soil columns (Chapters 4 and 5). The CO₂ emissions from soil planted with ash tended to be higher than, or were similar to, the emissions from soil planted with beech (Chapters 4 and 5). Due to the higher relative contribution of root respiration to total soil respiration in ash rhizotrons (35.5 ± 8.5 vs. 9.0 ± 2.7 %, Chapter 5), we assume that a higher activity of saprotrophic fungi and a larger microbial-specific respiration was responsible for the similar CO₂ effluxes from soil under beech and ash (Chapter 6). In the rhizotron approach, the CH₄ uptake was significantly increased under ash compared to the control soil (Chapter 5), while beech saplings did not significantly affect the CH₄ uptake. In contrast to the observed changes in greenhouse gas fluxes, the C and N stocks of soil under beech and ash were only slightly different. In conclusion, the gas fluxes from the soil to the atmosphere can be used as sensitive indicators of even small changes in the biogeochemical processes of forests. Despite the higher CO₂ efflux from soil under ash, the greenhouse gas balance calculated as the sum of CO₂, CH₄, and N₂O fluxes tended to be more favourable for soil under ash than for soil under beech saplings in all experiments, which indicates a mitigating influence of European ash on the greenhouse gas balance of temperate forest soils. Further field and laboratory research on the relation between root systems and greenhouse gas fluxes from the soil are needed for realistic predictions of the future greenhouse gas balance under changing climatic conditions.

Abstract. This article provides an overview of the effects of land-use on the fluxes of carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O) and from peatlands in the Nordic countries based on the field data from about 100 studies. In addition, this review aims to identify the gaps in the present knowledge on the greenhouse gas (GHG) balances associated with the land-use of these northern ecosystems. Northern peatlands have accumulated, as peat, a vast amount of carbon from the atmosphere since the last glaciation. However, the past land-use and present climate have evidently changed their GHG balance. Unmanaged boreal peatlands may act as net sources or sinks for CO2 and CH4 depending on the weather conditions. Drainage for agriculture has turned peatlands to significant sources of GHGs (mainly N2O and CO2). Annual mean GHG balances including net CH4, N2O and CO2 emissions are 2260, 2280 and 3140 g CO2 eq. m−2 (calculated using 100 year time horizon) for areas drained for grass swards, cereals or those left fallow, respectively. Even after cessetion of the cultivation practices, N2O and CO2 emissions remain high. The mean net GHG emissions in abandoned and afforested agricultural peatlands have been 1580 and 500 g CO2 eq. m−2, respectively. Peat extraction sites are net sources of GHGs with an average emission rate of 770 g CO2 eq. m−2. Cultivation of a perennial grass (e.g., reed canary grass) on an abandoned peat extraction site has been shown to convert such a site into a net sink of GHGs (−330 g CO2 eq. m−2). In contrast, despite restoration, such sites are known to emit GHGs (mean source of 480 g CO2 eq. m−2, mostly from high CH4 emissions). Peatland forests, originally drained for forestry, may act as net sinks (mean −780 g CO2 eq. m−2). However, the studies where all three GHGs have been measured at an ecosystem level in the forested peatlands are lacking. The data for restored peatland forests (clear cut and rewetted) indicate that such sites are on average a net sink (190 g CO2 eq. m−2). The mean emissions from drained peatlands presented here do not include emissions from ditches which form a part of the drainage network and can contribute significantly to the total GHG budget. Peat soils submerged under water reservoirs have acted as sources of CO2, CH4 and N2O (mean annual emission 240 g CO2 eq. m−2). However, we cannot yet predict accurately the overall greenhouse gas fluxes of organic soils based on the site characteristics and land-use practices alone because the data on many land-use options and our understanding of the biogeochemical cycling associated with the gas fluxes are limited.

The life cycle based greenhouse gas (GHG) balances of Fatty Acid Methyl Esters (FAME also called "Biodiesel") from various resources have been set in the Renewable Energy Directive (RED). Due to technology and scientific progress there are various options to improve the GHG balances of FAME. In this Supporting Action 10 most interesting options were assessed: 1) "Biomethanol": Substitution of fossil methanol with biomethanol; 2) "Bioethanol": Substitution of fossil methanol with bioethanol; 3) "CHP residues": Use of residues and co-products in an CHP plant; 4) "New plant species": Examination of new plants for vegetable oils, that could increase the biomass weight without any detrimental effect on the oil seed; 5) "Bioplastics and biochemicals": Production of bioplastics and biochemicals from process residues; 6) "Advanced agriculture": Advanced agricultural practices in terms of N2O emissions and soil carbon accumulation; 7) "Organic residues": Use of organic versus mineral fertilizer for feedstock cultivation; 8) "FAME as fuel": Use of FAME in machinery for cultivation, transportation and distribution; 9) "Retrofitting multi feedstock": Retrofitting of single feedstock plants for blending fatty residues; and 10) "Green electricity": Use of renewable electricity produced in a PV plant on site. The assessment approach started with the GHG standard values of the RED and the corresponding background data documented in BioGrace. For the most relevant FAME production possibilities in Europe, characterized by the feedstock (rapeseed, sunflower, palm oil, soybean, used cooking oil, animal fat) and FAME production capacity (50 - 200 kt/a), the technical and economic data of "Best Available Technology in 2015" (BAT) were used as starting point to assess the improvement options. Based on the calculation of GHG emissions (g CO2-eq/MJ) and production cost (€/tFAME) an overall assessment (incl SWOT-Analyses and Stakeholder involvement) of the options was made and summarized in "Fact Sheets". A significant GHG reduction compared to the RED values in processing is possible, if best available technology (BAT) is applied. The GHG emissions of cultivation compared to RED are higher due to improved data on the correlation between fertilizer input and yields. The assessed GHG improvements options show that the potential to reduce emissions is relatively large in agriculture cultivation, but a relatively low in processing. The production cost analysis shows that revenues from co-produced animal feed and oil yield per hectare have a strong influence on total production costs, e.g. mainly animal feed from soybeans. The total FAME production cost of BAT are 280 – 1,000 €/tFAME, including revenues from co-products. Cost ranges arise due to different feedstock and capacities. The greenhouse gas analysis of the improvement options results in a GHG reduction potential of 0 - 37 g CO2-eq/MJ compared to BAT. The greenhouse gas mitigation costs of improvement options range between -260 and +1,000 €/t CO2-eq. Options with negative greenhouse gas mitigation costs generate economic benefits compared to the base case. Summing up the assessment one can conclude that the future FAME production has several options to further improve its GHG balance thus contributing substantially to a more sustainable transportation sector.

Grassland ecosystems play an essential role in climate regulation through carbon (C) storage in plant and soil. But, anthropogenic practices such as livestock grazing, grazing related excreta nitrogen (N) deposition, and manure/fertilizer N application have the potential to reduce the effectiveness of grassland C sink through increased nitrous oxide (N2O) and methane (CH4) emissions. Although the effect of anthropogenic activities on net greenhouse gas (GHG) fluxes in grassland ecosystems have been investigated at local to regional scales, estimates of net GHG balance at the global scale remains uncertain. With the data-model framework integrating empirical estimates of livestock CH4 emissions with process-based modeling estimates of land CO2, N2O and CH4 fluxes, we examined the overall global warming potential (GWP) of grassland ecosystems during 1961–2010. We then quantified the grassland-specific and regional variations to identify hotspots of GHG fluxes. Our results show that, over a 100-year time horizon, grassland ecosystems sequestered a cumulative total of 113.9 Pg CO2-eq in plant and soil, but then released 91.9 Pg CO2-eq to the atmosphere, offsetting 81% of the net CO2 sink. We also found large grassland-specific variations in net GHG fluxes, with pasturelands acting as a small GHG source of 1.52 ± 143 Tg CO2-eq yr−1 (mean ± 1.0 s.d.) and rangelands a strong GHG sink (−442 ± 266 Tg CO2-eq yr−1) during 1961–2010. Regionally, Europe acted as a GHG source of 23 ± 10 Tg CO2-eq yr−1, while other regions (i.e. Africa, Southern Asia) were strong GHG sinks during 2001–2010. Our study highlights the importance of considering regional and grassland-specific differences in GHG fluxes for guiding future management and climate mitigation strategies in global grasslands.

The compaction of forest soils can deteriorate soil aeration, leading to decreased CH4 uptake and increased N2O efflux. Black alder (Alnus glutinosa) may accelerate soil structure regeneration as it can grow roots under anaerobic soil conditions. However, symbiotic nitrogen fixation by alder can have undesirable side-effects on greenhouse gas (GHG) fluxes. In this study, we evaluated the possible trade-off between alder-mediated structure recovery and GHG emissions. We compared two directly adjacent 15-year old beech (Fagus sylvatica) and alder stands (loamy texture, pH 5–6), including old planted skid trails. The last soil trafficking on the skid trails took place in 1999. GHG fluxes were measured over one year. Undisturbed plots with beech had a moderately higher total porosity and were lower in soil moisture and soil organic carbon than undisturbed alder plots. No differences in mineral nitrogen were found. N2O emissions in the undisturbed beech stand were 0.4 kg ha−1 y−1 and 3.1 kg ha−1 y−1 in the undisturbed alder stand. CH4 uptake was 4.0 kg ha−1 y−1 and 1.5 kg ha−1 y−1 under beech and alder, respectively. On the beech planted skid trail, topsoil compaction was still evident by reduced macro porosity and soil aeration; on the alder planted skid trail, soil structure of the uppermost soil layer was completely recovered. Skid trail N2O fluxes under beech were five times higher and CH4 oxidation was 0.6 times lower compared to the adjacent undisturbed beech stand. Under alder, no skid-trail-effects on GHG fluxes were evident. Multiple regression modelling revealed that N2O and CH4 emissions were mainly governed by soil aeration and soil temperature. Compared to beech, alder considerably increased net fluxes of GHG on undisturbed plots. However, for skid trails we suggest that black alder improves soil structure without deterioration of the stand’s greenhouse gas balance, when planted only on the compacted areas.

Environmental evaluation with greenhouse gas emissions and absorption based on life cycle assessment for a Jatropha cultivation system in frost- and drought-prone regions of Botswana

Greenhouse gas balance from cultivation and direct land use change of recently established sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum) plantation in south-central Brazil