Abstract
Research to date has confirmed 2,4-D residues may dislodge from turfgrass; however, experiments have not been conducted on hybrid bermudagrass (Cynodon dactylon L. x C. transvaalensis), the most common athletic field turfgrass in subtropical climates. More specifically, previous research has not investigated the effect of post-application irrigation on dislodgeable 2,4-D residues from hybrid bermudagrass and across turfgrass species, research has been nondescript regarding sample time within a d (TWD) or conducted in the afternoon when the turfgrass canopy is dry, possibly underestimating potential for dislodgement. The effect of irrigation and TWD on 2,4-D dislodgeability was investigated. Dislodgeable 2,4-D amine was reduced > 300% following irrigation. From 2 to 7 d after treatment (DAT), ≤ 0.5% of applied 2,4-D was dislodged from irrigated turfgrass, while ≤ 2.3% of applied 2,4-D was dislodged when not irrigated. 2,4-D dislodgeability decreased as TWD increased. Dislodgeable 2,4-D residues declined to < 0.1% of the applied at 1 DAT– 13:00, and increased to 1 to 3% of the applied 2 DAT– 5:00, suggesting 2,4-D re-suspended on treated turfgrass vegetation overnight. In conclusion, irrigating treated turfgrass reduced dislodgeable 2,4-D. 2,4-D dislodgeability increased as TWD decreased, which was attributed to non-precipitation climatic conditions favoring turfgrass canopy wetness. This research will improve turfgrass management practices and research designed to minimize human 2,4-D exposure.
Highlights
Turfgrasses are grown on over 16.3 million hectares in the contiguous United States (US)– exceeding the combined area of irrigated grain corn [(Zea mays L.) 2.5 million], soybeans [Glycine max L.) 2.1 million] and cotton [(Gossypium hirsutum L.) 0.9 million]–and are utilized by the public with land uses including commercial/residential lawns, golf courses, parks and roadsides [1, 2]
Data from our research suggest 2,4-D risk assessments may be improved if more specificity is provided when calculating exposure potential by including atmospheric and turfgrass canopy conditions
This research evaluated 2,4-D dislodgement from hybrid bermudagrass, the most common athletic field turfgrass in tropical and subtropical regions, with a method simulating a common process in soccer, the most popular international sport
Summary
Turfgrasses are grown on over 16.3 million hectares in the contiguous United States (US)– exceeding the combined area of irrigated grain corn [(Zea mays L.) 2.5 million], soybeans [Glycine max L.) 2.1 million] and cotton [(Gossypium hirsutum L.) 0.9 million]–and are utilized by the public with land uses including commercial/residential lawns, golf courses, parks and roadsides [1, 2]. The US Census Bureau reported in 2009 over 40% of the population ages 7 to 44 participated in baseball, football, golf, soccer and/or softball, all played predominately on managed natural turfgrass [4]. Providing an acceptable playing surface poses many challenges for athletic field managers. Public athletic fields are often overused or used when environmental conditions favor playing surface degradation. Player safety may be compromised due to poor footing conditions manifesting as playing surfaces degrade [5, 6]. To mitigate these issues, synthetic herbicides are commonly applied for weed control on athletic fields
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