Abstract
Based on anatomical measurements of refractive structures in the eye, the positions of focused images were computed for several groups of semiaquatic mammals: rodents, a nonpinniped semiaquatic carnivore (the sea otter), and pinniped carnivores (seals, sea lions, and the walrus). In semiaquatic rodents, eye optics enable emmetropia in the air but cause substantial hypermetropia in the water. In semiaquatic carnivores, there are several mechanisms for amphibious vision that focus images on the retina in both air and water. These mechanisms include the potential for a substantial change in the lens shape of sea otters and the presence of the corneal emmetropic window in pinnipeds. The results suggest that several groups of mammals that independently adapted to aquatic environments vary in how their visual systems adapted to aquatic vision.
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