Abstract
Membrane-bound vesicles that are released from cells are increasingly being studied as a medium of intercellular communication, as these act to shuttle functional proteins, such as lipids, DNA, rRNA, and miRNA, between cells during essential physiological processes. Extracellular vesicles (EVs), most commonly exosomes, are consistently produced by virus-infected cells, and they play crucial roles in mediating communication between infected and uninfected cells. Notably, pathophysiological roles for EVs have been established in various viral infections, including human immune deficiency virus (HIV), coronavirus (CoV), and human adenovirus (HAdv). Retroviruses, such as HIV, modulate the production and composition of EVs, and critically, these viruses can exploit EV formation, secretion, and release pathways to promote infection, transmission, and intercellular spread. Consequently, EV production has been investigated as a potential tool for the development of improved viral infection diagnostics and therapeutics. This review will summarize our present knowledge of EV–virus relationships, focusing on their known roles in pathophysiological pathways, immunomodulatory mechanisms, and utility for biomarker discovery. This review will also discuss the potential for EVs to be exploited as diagnostic and treatment tools for viral infection.
Highlights
Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are a heterogeneous population of membrane vesicles that are secreted from cells and act as key mediators of intercellular communication [1]
EVs are secreted by cells in virtually all tissues, organs, and bodily fluids, which is reflected by their abundance in the body, and their secretion can be either systemic or localized
In regards to human immune deficiency virus (HIV) and Epstein–Barr virus infection, it has been shown that EVs carry viral proteins and or nucleic acids that aid their reactivation during latency, this in return impedes host immune response to virus [100]
Summary
Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are a heterogeneous population of membrane vesicles that are secreted from cells and act as key mediators of intercellular communication [1]. Exosomes range in size from 30–200 nm, whereas larger vesicles, like MVs, could span from 100–1000 nm [23,27] Both exosomes and MVs are secreted in response to typical physiological and pathological conditions, unlike exosomes that form within the lumen of MVBs, MVs are secreted via budding and shedding from the plasma membrane. Due to their heterogeneity and distinct cellular origins, a key challenge facing the study of EVs is how to effectively differentiate MVs from exosomes. They are usually released from certain cell types dependent on specific biological conditions, which suggests they may be suitable biomarkers for viral disease diagnosis
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