Abstract
Although many birds are socially monogamous, most (>75%) studied species are not strictly genetically monogamous, especially under high breeding density. We used molecular tools to reevaluate the reproductive strategy of the socially monogamous white stork (Ciconia ciconia) and examined local density effects. DNA samples of nestlings (Germany, Spain) were genotyped and assigned relationships using a two-program maximum likelihood classification. Relationships were successfully classified in 79.2% of German (n = 120) and 84.8% of Spanish (n = 59) nests. For each population respectively, 76.8% (n = 73) and 66.0% (n = 33) of nests contained only full-siblings, 10.5% (n = 10) and 18.0% (n = 9) had half-siblings (at least one nestling with a different parent), 3.2% (n = 3) and 10.0% (n = 5) had unrelated nestlings (at least two nestlings, each with different parents), and 9.5% (n = 9) and 6.0% (n = 3) had “not full-siblings” (could not differentiate between latter two cases). These deviations from strict monogamy place the white stork in the 59th percentile for extra-pair paternity among studied bird species. Although high breeding density generally increases extra-pair paternity, we found no significant association with this species’ mating strategies. Thus although genetic monogamy is indeed prominent in the white stork, extra-pair paternity is fairly common compared to other bird species and cannot be explained by breeding density.
Highlights
From genetic monogamy, often described by the rate of extra-pair paternity (EPP), reflect successful fertilization of an EPC
Genetic monogamy could be considered a proof of sexual monogamy, confounding factors such as sperm selection and timing of copulations could still result in findings of genetic monogamy even if a pair is not sexually monogamous[11,12]
Our study shows that the white stork is not a strictly monogamous species, but rather exhibits a mixed mating strategy
Summary
From genetic monogamy, often described by the rate of extra-pair paternity (EPP), reflect successful fertilization of an EPC. Parentage analysis of adults and the juveniles in their respective broods is often the easiest method for determining genetic mating systems[24], but methodological and ecological constraints (e.g. difficulty in trapping adults in natural systems) often preclude procurement of parental genetic matter. In these cases, genetic mating systems can still be elucidated from putative sibling groups (e.g. hatchlings from the same nest) based upon the degree of relatedness between all offspring within a brood[16,18,19,22,24]. Because the white stork is large, identifiable, and observed during breeding, due to a preference to nest in open areas near human settlements, this species is a common subject for scientific studies on reproduction (e.g.34–39)
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