Abstract
Primary sources of atmospheric sulfur dioxide are anthropogenic activities associated with the burning of fossil fuels and industrial processes that may have associations with various morbidities and mortalities. As such, several regional and global regulatory agencies have recommended ambient air limits to reduce environmental exposures. The objectives of this study were to evaluate ambient levels of sulfur dioxide surrounding an oil refinery on the island of CuraCao. Levels which were then compared to literature values and recommended public health guidelines to determine potential public health risks. Concentrations of sulfur dioxide in Curacao were found to be among the highest globally with an increasing trend over time. While the epidemiological evidence does not conclusively suggest there is a health risk from these levels of exposure, SO2 concentrations greatly exceed regulatory and guidance levels and suggest that further emissions control is warranted. Future recommendations include a more rigorous epidemiological study in CuraCao and expand the air monitoring efforts to include areas upwind of the refinery as well as additional petrochemical emissions.
Highlights
Atmospheric SO2 is primarily the result of anthropogenic activities associated with the burning of fossil fuels and industrial processes but can be released naturally from volcanic activities, sea-salt emissions and sulfur gas oxidation [2] [3] [4]
The previously reported increasing inhalable particulate matter in this region mimics that of the SO2 suggesting a single source (Figure 9; Pulster, unpublished data). This suggests with increasing wind speeds, pollution plumes and fluxes are expected to increase, impacting local populations residing within the refinery’s plume trajectory. The objective of this investigation was to conduct an exposure assessment by analyzing levels of SO2 in ambient air surrounding Willemstad, Curaçao in order to determine if any temporal trends exist in the measured concentrations, to verify if measured levels exceed current public health guidelines and to identify potential health risks
Levels of SO2 exceeded the annual and 24-hour guidelines recommended by Curaçao, the European Commission, and the World Health Organization
Summary
Communities downwind of Isla Refineriá and the major thoroughfare (Schottegatweg Ring) circling the refinery and the bay have self reported from questionnaires higher than average frequencies of headaches, nausea, chronic lung ailments, asthma and cancer [7]. These self-reported questionnaire results have not been validated. To our knowledge there has never been an exposure assessment conducted to evaluate ambient atmospheric levels of refinery emissions and their associated public health risks in Curaçao. In 2009, a court order required the refinery to reduce the excessive SO2 emissions and particulates starting from January 1, 2010
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