Abstract
Background: Off-time pubertal timing (PT) and non-conforming gender identity have been reported to predict adverse health and well-being in adolescents. However, the joint effects of these two factors are less addressed. We aimed to investigate the main and interaction effects of gender identity, proxied by perceived gender contentedness (GC), and PT on longitudinal adolescent psychological and behavioral outcomes.Methods: Data (N = 1806, Mage = 13.3 ± 0.5 years) come from the Taiwan Youth Project, which prospectively followed a longitudinal cohort of Taiwanese junior high school students from 2000 (wave 1) to 2009 (wave 9). GC was self-reported at waves 1 and 9 in a binary response, and thus 4 GC trajectories were created. PT was defined using the Pubertal Developmental Scale, which mainly measured physical changes in puberty. Multiple linear regression analyses with gender stratification were applied to examine the effects of the GC trajectory and its interaction with PT on the outcomes.Results: A total of 1,562 subjects (86.5%) remained consistently satisfied with their gender, while the GC of 226 subjects (12.6%) changed at some point. Regression analyses found that males with gender dissatisfaction at wave 9 were likely to engage in delinquent behavior, and females in this group were more likely to have lower self-esteem, as compared to those with consistent GC. The interaction effect between the GC trajectory and PT appeared to be associated with smoking and drinking only at wave 1.Conclusions: These findings indicate that healthcare professionals should concentrate on gender non-conforming individuals at early adolescence, navigating them toward a healthy adulthood.
Highlights
Gender identity usually refers to the extent to which a person adheres to one gender, which in turn determines self-image and provides an important basis for social interaction [1]
The data used in this study were retrieved from the Taiwan Youth Project (TYP), which was launched by the Institute of Sociology, Academia Sinica, Taiwan [21]
In the multiple linear regression analyses, Model 1, which considered the sole effect of the gender contentedness (GC) trajectory, showed that boys in GC2 were at increased risk for poor psychological well-being [β = 6.165,] and low selfesteem [β = −3.780, (−5.418 to −2.141)] at wave 1 (Table 3)
Summary
Gender identity usually refers to the extent to which a person adheres to one gender, which in turn determines self-image and provides an important basis for social interaction [1]. It has been widely observed that gender conformity is linked to psychological well-being in adolescents and young adults [2]. Gender non-conforming children and adolescents are likely to have mal-adjustment issues and to be at risk for emotional disturbance such as anxiety, depression, and even suicidal ideations [3, 4]. During adolescence, gender identity develops in sequential steps through an intertwined process of personal reflection and contextual influence. Prepubertal issues of gender identity typically resolve before adolescence but they may persist lifelong once past puberty [6]. Off-time pubertal timing (PT) and non-conforming gender identity have been reported to predict adverse health and well-being in adolescents. We aimed to investigate the main and interaction effects of gender identity, proxied by perceived gender contentedness (GC), and PT on longitudinal adolescent psychological and behavioral outcomes
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