Abstract
Four controlled experiments investigated the effectiveness of different documentation formats for presenting information about computer programs. Nine different documentation formats (some quite novel) were created by varying three different forms of symbology (natural language, constrained language, and ideograms) and three different spatial arrangements (sequential, branching, and hierarchical). Professional programmers used these formats as aids to comprehend (Experiment 1), code (Experiment 2), debug (Experiment 3), and modify (Experiment 4) modular-sized programs. For each programming task, a model of the cognitive activities a programmer would perform generated hypotheses about the effectiveness of different formats. Natural language was found to be less effective in assisting most of the tasks studied than a constrained language or ideograms. A smaller effect was observed (less frequently than expected) for the spatial arrangment in situations where control flow information aided the task. The largest effect in the experiments, individual differences among the participants, accounted for between a third and one-half of the variation in performance.
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