Abstract
Exosomes (EXOs) were given attention as an extracellular vesicle (EV) with a pivotal pathophysiological role in the development of certain neurodegenerative disorders (NDD), such as Parkinson’s and Alzheimer’s disease (AD). EXOs have shown the potential to carry pathological and therapeutic cargo; thus, researchers have harnessed EXOs in drug delivery applications. EXOs have shown low immunogenicity as natural drug delivery vehicles, thus ensuring efficient drug delivery without causing significant adverse reactions. Recently, EXOs provided potential drug delivery opportunities in AD and promising future clinical applications with the diagnosis of NDD and were studied for their usefulness in disease detection and prediction prior to the emergence of symptoms. In the future, the microfluidics technique will play an essential role in isolating and detecting EXOs to diagnose AD before the development of advanced symptoms. This review is not reiterative literature but will discuss why EXOs have strong potential in treating AD and how they can be used as a tool to predict and diagnose this disorder.
Highlights
Introduction iationsAlzheimer’s disease (AD) is a prevailing disorder among the elderly, accounting for more than 60% of dementia cases, which may be either sporadic or familial, representing the late and early onset of the disease, respectively
The applications of extracellular vesicles are diverse and numerous, but they are still in the infancy stage of development due to the limitations related to their manipulation
Reaching an advanced stage and developing techniques that deal with the EXOs in an ideal way for accurate separation, identification, and diagnosis, in various clinical applications, require extensive research and more experiments
Summary
The outlook for EXOs has been completely changed from being cell waste to being a natural, multi-tasking carrier that can assimilate and transport large molecules such as lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. When hyperphosphorylated, tau proteins can lead the helical and straight filaments to form NFT; these tangles can accumulate as a toxic cluster in the critical regions for learning and memory [33]. The spreading of these aggregates during the early stage of AD is still poorly understood. EXOs possess a significant role in neuroinflammation because they are a natural nanocarrier of neurotoxic inflammatory molecules and mediate intercellular communication between cells; they release Aβ, accelerating amyloid plaque formation and facilitating the progression of inflammation in brain cells [36,37]. It is believed that Aβ plaques induce downstream effects at the cellular level, such as oxidative stress, microglial activation, local inflammation, and tau protein hyperphosphorylation, leading to cell death and synaptic signaling dysfunction [38,39,40]
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