Examining policy−institution−program (PIP) responses against the drivers of ecosystem dynamics. A chronological review (1960–2020) from Nepal

Abstract

Ecosystems are dynamic forms of nature, intuitively affected by natural processes and human interventions, depending on various drivers of changes and management responses. Understanding the ecosystem dynamics (ED) from the perspective of both the drivers of changes and the effectiveness of policy−institution−program (PIP) responses is crucial for nature sustainability. PIP response to a management problem, as a sectoral intervention, has been analysed in the past; however, national-level assessment of drivers of ecosystem dynamics and its PIP responses has not been done so far. This paper is aimed at cyclical assessment and chronological analysis (1960–2020) of the appropriateness and effectiveness of the PIP responses to the drivers of ED, taking the case of Nepal. Using a driver-pressure-state-impact-response (DPSIR) framework, we have assessed 38 drivers of ED on a decadal basis and analysed > 30 policy instruments as well as 15 periodic development plans (i.e., five-year plans and three-year plans) that have been developed yet. Moreover, we have carried out 300 household surveys to understand local people’s demand for ecosystem management. Based on various qualitative and quantitative analyses, we have portrayed pressure, state, and impact of various economic, demographic, technological, governance, globalization, and other drivers, including PIP response to address the drivers of changes. We found that the drivers of ED are non-linear and multifaceted, but the PIP responses are sectoral and incremental (i.e., piecemeal gradation to the previous efforts). Instead of characterization of drivers of ED and public demand, domestic PIP responses are largely influenced by global environmental discourse. Our findings are critical in understanding dynamic drivers of ecosystems and pathways of PIP responses, which might support policymakers and scholars in Nepal and other developing countries in the Himalayas to recalibrate PIP measures for sustainable resource management by suitably addressing the drivers of ED.