Abstract
Since raw materials are seldom located at the doorstep of end users, they need to be delivered, often through a circuitous and lengthy route from the source to the destination. The delivery chain could involve land and water, using a wide variety of means of transportation (Ref. 1). Over decades literally billions of tons of bulk material have been delivered from the source to the destination over these varied routes. As speeds and rates of shipping increased in the modem times, sophisticated intermodal transshipment terminals have become necessary to connect these routes. Storage facilities (piles, bins and/or silos) serve as buffers to smooth out the asynchronous land/water vessel arrivals and to minimize demurrage. High speed stacking, reclaiming, loading and unloading equipment have been developed to accommodate the needs.
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